MichaelaRudolph:

Natural fibers

2015-05-04T08:28:35Z

MichaelaRudolph:

Natural fibres are divided into two main classifications:

animal (protein) fibres and plant (cellulose) fibres.

Protein fibres are derived from animals and include [[wool]], [[cashmere]], [[alpaca]], [[silk]] and [[leather]].

Cellulose fibres are derived from plants, and are products of agriculture. Fibres are either bast fibres (the fibre found in the stem of the plant) such as [[Flax Linen]] or [[hemp]], or seed fibres such as [[cotton]].

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2015-05-04T08:23:47Z

MichaelaRudolph: Created page with "Natural fibres are divided into two main classifications: animal (protein) fibres and plant (cellulose) fibres. Protein fibres are derived from animals and include wool, c..."

Consumer care and washing

2015-05-04T08:05:07Z

MichaelaRudolph: MichaelaRudolph moved page Use and care to Consumer care and washing without leaving a redirect: New name

{{Use and care}}

An important part concerning the total environmental impact of a textile product consist of how long the product can be used before it is worn-out, how the product is cared for and finally what is done with it when it is no longer usable for its original purpose. The consumer use phase of a garment or product can significantly contribute to its overall environmental influence. While consumer care and washing may seem out of the company’s control, using effective product design and marketing to educate consumers could play a significant role in affecting the influence that a garment or product could have on the environment.
[[File:Skötsel Sid 64.JPG|thumb|400px]]

==Washing==
Most textile products are washed several times during their [[lifecycle]]s. Today it is estimated that the average Swede uses about 200 kg washed clothes per year. This is more than ten times the total fiber consumption, or about 1.7 million tons. 40 000-50 000 tons of detergents is used for this. In addition to this, a few thousand tons of fabric softener and anti-static agent are used. The use of dry cleaning is estimated to about 0.7 kg per person and year. The decrease is due to increased costs and environmental problems, as well as to changes in materials and clothing habits. Laundry has always been an essential part of household chores. But also companies and institutions such as hospitals, nursing homes and hotels have a great need of laundry and these form a market for industrial laundries. Washing habits have changed over time, due to the progress of detergents and laundry equipment. The industrial production of soap began in the 1800s after the invention of the soda process. The first composite detergent was manufactured in 1907 in Germany under the name Persil. Besides soap and soda it also contained perborate as bleaching agent and silicate as a stabilizer, hence the name Persil. Soap was the surfactant in detergents until World War II. Then the development has been rapid. The first washing machines came in the middle of the 1800s and the first dry cleaning machine came about 1870. These devices were quite primitive, and the development did not take off until after World War II.

==Water-wash==
For water-washing you need water, detergent to facilitate removal of soil, a washing machine (unless you want to do it by hand) and an opportunity to raise the temperature of the wash solution. In addition, the washing has to last for a certain time for cleaning results to be satisfactory. Finally, the fabrics have to be dried before use. Treatments after drying are ironing, mangling and in some cases re-impregnation for specific functions. For water-washing, water, energy and detergent are consumed, and from an environmental perspective detergent is probably the most important ingredient.

==Environmental Facts – water-wash==
[[File:Zeoliter korr.JPG|thumb|400px|]] Common detergents today always contain [[surfactants]] of various types for easier cleaning. In order to soften the water, sequestrants in form of phosphates or [[zeolites]] and [[polycarboxylic acids]] are added. The sequestrants should also take care of the hardness formers (calcium and magnesium) of the soiled wash load. Phosphates are difficult to remove from wastewater and often ends up in rivers and lakes, where they cause algae blooms that negatively effect ecosystems and marine life. Has been banned in Europe for use in consumer detergents.[1] In addition, alkali is added, which consist mostly of soda and / or metasilicate. [[Metasilicate]] also works as a corrosion inhibitor, and a peroxide stabilizer. Because of the mercury structure, however, the substance is classified as hazardous, and with very high acute toxicity and thus belongs to the so-called phase-out substances in the prioritization guide. NPE (nonylphenol ethoxylate)has been banned in Europe as it is persistent in the aquatic environment, moderately bioaccumulative and extremely toxic to aquatic organisms.[2,3] Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS)/sodium laureth sulfate (SLES) can cause irritation of the skin and eyes [4] and 1,4-dioxane is possibly carcinogen, bioaccumulative in the environment, contaminate groundwater and is non-biodegradable.[5] Other ingredients including linear alkyl sodium sulfonates (LAS), petroleum distillates (a.k.a. naphthas), phenols, optical brighteners, sodium hypochlorite (bleach), EDTA (ethylene-diamino-tetra-acetate) and artificial fragrances, have also been linked to various toxic effects on fish and animals, as well as allergic reactions in humans.

Detergent for whites (powder detergent), should contain bleach. The bleach usually consist of sodium percarbonate or sodium perborate. Today there are also often additives who form peracetic acid in the wash solution from the peroxides ([[TAED]]).

To enhance the visual whiteness, [[optical brighteners]] are added, which are often also found in the fabric from the start. To avoid loosened soil to fall back on to the fabric in the washing solution, protective colloids are added - usually carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), but also polyvinylpyrrolidone. More and more detergents today contain [[enzymes]], such as proteases, lipases and cellulases. In addition, detergents contain varying amounts and kinds of neutral salt and perfume. To reduce the environmental impact of detergents and other cleaning products, these products are environmental labeled. Nordic Eco Label and Nature Conservation's [[Good Environmental Choice]] are now common labels on detergents. For environmental information on the detergent, the organization’s criteria concerning this are referred to. Water and energy consumption for different washing and drying machines are tested by the [[Consumer Agency]] and must be declared for each unit sold in the market.

==Dry Cleaning==
The amount of dry cleaned goods in Sweden has been on a steady decline, mostly due to the fact that today's textile products are more compatible with water washing than before. This particularly applies to the fabrics shrinkage properties, which have improved, but also to that accessories have become more water resistant than before. To enabling wool fabrics to be machine washed in water, the felting shrinkage has been counteracted through anti-felting treatments, where the scale structure of the wool fiber has been removed or covered. Previously, chlorine was used in the anti-felting treatment, something that is now considered less environmentally sound. Today, processes are developed, where anti-felt treatment can be accomplished by enzymes or less environmentally damaging oxidation. Meanwhile, environmental problems associated with dry cleaning are brought up. The rules for safety and emissions have also been tightened, resulting in new machinery and equipment, which has led to increased costs. While in water washing the detergents cause greatest concern for the environment, it is the solvents that are the Achilles heel of dry cleaning. Until the Second World War, hydrocarbons (white spirit, kerosene, Stoddard solvent hydrocarbon fractions) were used in dry cleaning. These solvents are flammable, making the dry cleaners burn every now and then. After World War II, the use of chlorinated hydrocarbons as solvents began, as these are not flammable. The chlorinated hydrocarbons were excellent solvents, but a somewhat gentler solvent eventually was needed, especially for skins and leather. In the 1960s came the hydrogen fluoride carbons, including CFC 113 which soon became dominant in Sweden. Industry has sometimes opted for dry cleaning of fabrics that have been well suited for water-washing, but where the soil has been of a type that is insoluble in water, such as lubricating oils and underseal of cars. The dry cleaning solvent is used in addition to surfactants and small amounts of water. One of the main reasons that fabrics shrink when washing is the mechanical processing. Therefore, work on machines with very low mechanical processing has begun, and thus allowing to wash your dry cleaning marked clothes in water. Meanwhile, the composition of detergents have been changed in order to avoid swelling. This technique is called "dry-in-water".

==Environmental Facts - dry cleaning==
All [[fluorocarbons]] (CFC's) deplete the ozone layer. CFC is not allowed in dry cleaning. Tetrachloroethene (perchlorethylene) is the predominant solvent for dry cleaning. The substance is suspected to be carcinogenic. It easily penetrates concrete, and when discharged into the groundwater, it is quite stable. Several European cities have had problems with tetrachloroethene that has penetrated the ground, causing major health hazards. Decontamination can be performed by aeration in order to drive out the solvent. One problem is that the substance is heavier than water and thus penetrates deep into cracks etc below groundwater level. Technically, this makes it more difficult to access than, say, oil that ends up on top of groundwater. In addition to "dry cleaning in water" there is machine equipment for washing in pure aliphatic hydrocarbons without aromatic substances. This reduces the health risk significantly. The solvent is still flammable, but mixing nitrogen into the drying air eliminates the fire hazard during drying. The surfactants used in dry cleaning are similar to those used for washing, but the surfactants used in the dry cleaning have a lower solubility in water.

==Finishing (drying, ironing, mangling, re-impregnation)==
Finishing can mean everything that is not directly related to laundry work. At home it usually means drying, ironing or mangling and sorting, but it may in some cases also involve re-impregnation or stain removal. Sales statistics of stain removers show an increasing turnover, but we do not know if the stain removal takes place before or after washing. In Germany, a steep increase in sales of stain removers began when the Eco-labeled detergents entered the market. In households, the laundry is usually dried a desiccator, drying room or dryer, and then ironed or mangled. The smooth, ironed look is less important today than it was for some 25 years ago, when much effort was put into processing the fabrics for an easier ironing or mangling. The finishing processes of the laundry industry is significantly more diverse than in households, due to the rapid development of various finishing devices such as steam tunnels, automated rollers, cloth folders and various sorting equipment. A lot of manual work is put into sorting the laundry in the laundry industry, both before and after washing. Through development of special computer chips that are sewn into the garments, it has been possible to automate the sorting work. The laundry industry sometimes has to perform re-impregnation, both in water and in dry cleaning. Generally, however, it would be better for the fabric manufacturer to permanently waterproof the fabric, resistant to repeated washings. From an environmental perspective, the release of impregnation chemicals is also greater if they have to be reapplied after every wash session. The inspection of cleanness and mechanical damage to the garments usually occurs after drying or later in the finishing-process chain. Mechanicalyl damaged items are repaired, while stains and impurity leads to stain removal, or more often to rewashing (the items washed a second time). In the laundry industry, rewashing is conducted according to the order and size inpercent. For households, there are no studies made showing how often rewashing occurs, but because it is known that the problem of garments rubbing off (staining) has increased in recent years, it can be assumed that rewashing in households has increased.

==Environmental Facts – finishing==
Finishing in the forms of drying, ironing, mangling and sometimes re-impregnation is less important from an environmental perspective. These finishes require energy and produce emissions of steam. Finishing after dry cleaning (ironing, etc.) may produce emissions from solvents (small amounts), but these emissions should be controlled and minimized through the previous closed processes. If the protective impregnation is made permanent when the fabric is manufactured, the emissions will be less than when there is a need for re-impregnation after each wash. These emissions go into the effluent and the air and the content depends on the type of impregnation. Stain removers, which is usually added after washing, often contain solvents or other chemicals that may be hazardous to the health and the environment.

==Resource consumtion==
Most of all laundry done today takes place in households who almost all have access to a washing machine and a dryer or a desiccator. The avarege Swedes does about 200 kg laundry / year and person. With a population of 8.5 million, it becomes 1.7 million tons of laundry. In addition to this is about 150 – 200 000 tons of industrial wash, including the state's laundry (hospitals etc), institutional laundries and private laundries. In recent years the washing temperature has dropped slightly; washing 90 ° C is now less common than 60 and 40 ° C, partly because of more colored goods and partly because of the presence of care labeling, and a change in detergents and washing habits. Surveys of the amounts washed at the different temperatures have not been found. The Consumer Agency, which has the largest collective knowledge of the Swedes' washing habits, found some years ago that a large part of the laundry, probably over 20 percent, is washed by hand. Determining the energy, water and detergent consumption is the degree to which the washing machines and dryers are filled. However, we know relatively little about how much today's households put in their machines. One reason is that the number of one-and two-person households has increased – for these it can be difficult to get a full washing machine. Another reason is the increase of laundry labels with the message "wash separately". The degree to which the washing machine is filled, determines the energy, water and detergent consumption in washing. Centrifuge efficiency (dewatering) determines to a large extent the energy consumption when drying. The Consumer Agency regularly publishes test results from the most common washing and drying machines on the market (household machines). It turns out that a wash with mixed laundry in a standard washing machine with a centrifuge revolution of 300 rev / min with tumbling afterwards consumes 1.7 kWh / kg laundry. The consumption is only 0.7 kWh / kg if the centrifuge revolution is 1200. When comparing one washing machine with a normal degree of filling with cotton textiles (l kg / 13-liter drum volume) and one with a half-filled load of noniron textiles, the water consumption averagely increases with 50-70 percent, while the detergent consumption almost doubles.

==Energy consumption==
If half of the Swedish households laundry is washed at 60 ° C with an energy consumption of 0.6 kWh/kg, and the other half is washed at 40 ° C with an energy consumption of 0.3 kWh/kg (approximate values from the Consumer Agency’s buying advice 1994), the total power consumption of the country would be 765 million kWh/year, which roughly represents 30 per cent of the electrical power from Oskarshamn 2 (Swedish nuclear plant, pared. note.). Note that these numbers are based on modern machines. The actual energy consumption is thus significantly higher. If the total laundry load size of 1.7 million tons is dried with an energy consumption of l kWh/kg, the total energy consumption of domestic washing would be about 2500 million kWh year. The energy consumption for ironing and mangling is not included. The overall energy consumption of washing and drying would probably correspond well with the amount of energy produced at Oskarshamn 2 (modern washing and drying equipment). In the example, we expect the machines to be half filled but with highly efficient dewatering in the centrifuge. As stated earlier, we know very little about the average laundry load quantity in the washing machine. The same applies to water levels, which is important regarding energy consumption during heating. The dewatering efficiency of the washing machines is probably lower than the assumed, but on the other hand, it can be assumed that at least part of the laundry is dried without drying machines during the summer months, ie. it is dried outside.

==Water consumption==
The water consumption in household washing varies quite a lot between different machines and programs. New machines with normal to half fill factor usually consumes 25-50 liters of water / kg laundry, depending on the washing program. An average water consumption of 40 liters / kg of laundry (half fill factor) gives a total water consumption of 68 million m3/year, roughly equivalent to the amount of water in a lake that is 20 km long, 600 m wide and 6 m depth.

==Detergent consumption==
The use of detergent is normally about 20 - 30 g / kg of laundry. This means that the total detergent consumption in Sweden is 34000-51000 tons / year. Sales should lie in this size range. In addition to this is the use of fabric softener which is estimated to about 10 000 tons (diluted solutions). In recent years, consumption of stain removers has increased, but the volume is difficult to estimate. The commercial detergents consist of surfactants, alkaline agents, sequestrants, corrosion inhibitors, protective colloids and different enzymes and bleaching for white goods and stain removal. Detergents have in recent years undergone a lot of changes regarding the chemical content by having certain environmentally hazardous components replaced. The voluntary environmental labeling of detergents has greatly accelerated this development. "Industrial washing", ie. larger laundries that wash for hospitals, government agencies, companies, etc., use - per kg laundry - less than half of the amount of water consumed when the washing is done in households. The same applies to the consumption of energy and detergent. This is due the equipment being better and more efficient.

== Suggestions for consumers & innovation ideas ==

• Encourage the use of "phosphate free," "no bleach," "SLE free" and "NPE free" detergents.

• Encourage the use of biodegradable detergents since these tend to not contain harmful ingredients.

• Encourage the use of plant- and animal-based ingredients, instead of petroleum-based.

• Encourage the use of concentrated detergents. These have reduced packaging.

• Encourage washing and rinsing in cold water.

• Encourage spot cleaning.

• Suggest alternatives to dry-cleaning with perc, including Solvon K4 and hydrocarbon solvents.

• Use fibres creatively and effectively to create garments or products that allow for less washing.

• Create a product where staining is intended as a design element, influencing the consumer to wash less.

• Create a garment that allows the consumer to detach and wash pieces of the garment that readily get soiled, saving on water.

• Design garments that utilize the natural wrinkling of the fabric as a design feature to influence reduced use of energy by customers to iron the garment.

==Sources==
[[Textile Environmental Handbook]]

# europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-11-1542_en.htm
# www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/actionplans/np-npe.html
# www.tfl.com/web/files/Statement_NPE-surfactants.pdf
# www.ewg.org/skindeep/ingredient/706089/SODIUM_LAURETH_SULFATE/
# www.ewg.org/skindeep/ingredient/726331/1%2C4-DIOXANE/