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Higg index

2015-09-01T15:29:48Z

MichaelaRudolph: Created page with "SAC Sustainable Apparel Coalition"

[[SAC]] [[Sustainable Apparel Coalition]]

Sustainable Apparel Coalition

2015-06-09T06:04:05Z

MichaelaRudolph:

The [[Higg index]]

Biopolymer fiber

2015-05-04T09:21:18Z

MichaelaRudolph:

Polylactide (PLA) is a renewable thermoplastic and a polymer. It is derived from the starch of plants such as corn, sugar cane and sugar beet. PLA is biodegradable, as it decays as a result of exposure to heat and moisture. It decomposes forming carbon dioxide and water, which present no danger to the environment.[1],[2]

PLA’s ability to biodegrade comes as a result of its hydrolysis and low melting point. These features could hinder PLA’s ability to be suitable in some applications, such as the outdoors or fabric that needs to be ironed. However, efforts to address these drawbacks in PLA have recently been accomplished. NatureWorks LLC, which offers a brand name of PLA called Ingeo, has developed hydrolytic stabilizers that can be implemented in certain applications to prevent degradation outdoors. The company is currently working to increase the melting point of PLA so that it can be ironed.[3]

== Sources ==

# textileexchange.org/sites/default/files/eco_fibre.pdf
# https://www.technologystudent.com/joints/pla1.html
# Boh, Richard. Personal Interview. 25 February 2014.

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Manufactured fibers

2015-05-04T08:46:27Z

MichaelaRudolph:

Manufactured fibers are fibers which are produced by artificial means. Raw materials are synthesized (joined) to long molecular chains in a process known as [[polymerization]]. The polymer is melted or dissolved into a spin-solution. The solution is forced through [[nozzles]] having small holes to form long fiber [[filaments]]. The same synthetic fibers may have different names (trade name), depending on who manufactured it and where it is manufactured.

Manufactured fibres are divided into three main classifications: man-made synthetic fibres, cellulosic and protein (azlon).

Man-made synthetic fibres are created using a polymerization process combining many small molecules into a large molecule (a polymer). Many of the polymers that constitute man-made fibres are similar to compounds that make up plastics, rubbers, adhesives and surface coatings.
The most common synthetic fiber is [[polyester]] (PET). [[Polyamide]] (PA) which is durable, is also used in industrial applications. Other common synthetic fibers are [[acrylic]] and [[elastane]].

Manufactured cellulosic fibres account for approximately 8% of global man-made fibres. These fibres are derived from a range of plant-based and woody materials, which require intensive chemical manufacturing processes to be transformed first into pulp and then into “regenerated” cellulosic filaments. These fibres include [[modal]], [[lyocell]], [[bamboo viscose]] and [[wood viscose]].

Protein fibre, otherwise known as Azlon, is fibre which is composed of regenerated, naturally occurring protein derived from a number of sources, including: soybean, peanut, casein (from milk), zein (from maize), and collagen/gelatin (from animal protein) to name a few. Protein fibres have received considerable attention in the United States, Europe, China and Japan as an inexpensive substitute for wool, silk and cashmere fibres.

==Related articles ==
*[[Polyester]]
*[[Polyamid]]

==Sources ==
*[[Textile Environmental Handbook]]
*[1] Fletcher, Kate, Sustainable Fashion and Textiles - Design journeys

Natural fibers

2015-05-04T08:23:47Z

MichaelaRudolph:

Natural fibres are divided into two main classifications:

animal (protein) fibres and plant (cellulose) fibres.

Protein fibres are derived from animals and include [[wool]], [[cashmere]], [[alpaca]], [[silk]] and [[leather]].

Cellulose fibres are derived from plants, and are products of agriculture. Fibres are either bast fibres (the fibre found in the stem of the plant) such as [[flax linen]] or [[hemp]], or seed fibres such as [[cotton]].

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Waste-to-energy & encouraging reuse

2015-04-29T09:26:11Z

MichaelaRudolph:

Through this method Sweden generates energy equivalent to 1.1 million cubic metres (m3) of oil per year, resulting in the highest amount of renewable energy produced in the European Union.[1]

''The reuse of materials should be considered a priority before relying on waste-to-energy incineration. This allows for the maximization of the embodied energy and resources used to create the product, and the ability to capitalize repeatedly off the same materials.''

'''Outside of the european union'''

Any garments or products sold outside of the European Union could increase the load on landfills or end up in oceans and large bodies of water, where they can harm aquatic species and potentially end up back in our food and water.
According to a study done by Mark Browne, an ecologist at University College Dublin, microscopic fragments of acrylic, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide and polyester have been discovered in increasing quantities across the northeast Atlantic, as well as on beaches in Britain, Singapore and India.[2]

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Garment washing

2015-04-29T07:55:42Z

MichaelaRudolph: /* Marketing opportunities */

In addition to improving or softening the hand-feel of products, garment washing affects the aesthetic of the product, often by imparting a "worn in" or "aged" appearance. Garment washing has become an indispensable tool for apparel designers to manipulate garment aesthetic and to impart unique decorative effects, particularly for denim.

The umbrella terms "garment wet processing," "garment wet and dry processing," "garment finishing" or just "garment processing" can be used interchangeably to describe many different techniques, all designed to alter the garment's hand-feel or aesthetic in some fashion. "Garment washing" generally entails those specific treatments involving water and chemicals.

Dry procedures are used primarily for localized or even "patterned" abrasion effects and include techniques such as sandblasting, hand sanding, brushing, grinding, cutting (holes/patches), etc.

Wet garment washing processes involve the use of numerous chemicals depending on the exact nature of the process. Most wet processes are designed to abrade, decolourize, and/or soften the garments. Although the techniques are generally intended as an all-over treatment, the degree of abrasion, decolourization, and/or softening can and does vary significantly within and between garments in a typical load. For example, thick
and/or more exposed areas of the garment (such as hems/seams) absorb more of the mechanical or kinetic energy during tumbling, and may therefore be more abraded and/or decolourized (faded) than flat areas. Conversely, tightly constructed areas of the garments may end up less decolourized than less-dense areas, since their ability to absorb chemicals (e.g., bleach) may be hindered.

By far, the most involved and intensive wet treatments are applied to denim products, although many of these same treatments are now applied to other woven bottoms, woven tops and even knit garments.

Two basic types of equipment are used for garment washing: 1) side-loading horizontal washers (commonly referred to as belly washers), and 2) front-loading rotary washer/extractors. There are numerous variants of each machine type.

Rotary washer/extractors, the more expensive of the two, generally provide many more options to control/optimize wet treatments, including advanced liquor ratio (water to fabric ratio) control, heating, and colourant/chemical add systems. As a rule, they provide more opportunities for waste minimization than belly washers.

After garment washing, large open-pocket tumble dryers are typically used to dry apparel. Smaller units may be heated electrically, while
larger units are typically steam- or gas-heated. Modern tumble dryers have relatively sophisticated controls (e.g., moisture sensors), which
help to minimize energy use.

==Steps for garment washing==
=== Desizing/scouring ===
Woven denim products must be desized before further garment washing since they still contain sizing agents applied to the warp yarns. The most common sizing agent is starch, and amylase enzymes are commonly used to break down the starch molecules into water-soluble sugars to ease their removal.

Another common sizing agent is polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). PVA is relatively water soluble, provided it is the right "grade." No enzymes or oxidizing agents are necessary to remove water-soluble sizing agents; they can be rinsed from the garments simply by using adequate washing temperatures and times, and a good detergent. PVA can create a high chemical load in the wastewater and should be reclaimed for reuse.
In addition to sizing agents, other "top finishes" are sometimes applied to fabrics, mainly for purposes of lubrication (e.g., sewing lubricants, sanforizing lubricants). Garment scouring removes these top finishes, largely accomplished by rinsing with an appropriate detergent. Light scouring and desizing softens denim garments drastically.

===Wet abrasion===
Wet abrasion techniques are used to create a natural-looking (uneven) worn and faded effect, ranging from slightly to very uneven. Wet abrasion increases seam contrast, since thicker regions of the garment tend to abrade more readily than flatter regions. In its most basic form, wet abrasion entails tumbling wet garments in the presence of pumice stones (or an appropriate substitute). Commonly known as “stonewashing,” this technique can create a wide array of effects by adjusting the amount of water or stones, the size or shape of the stones, the tumbling time, and the mass ratio of stones to garments.

Sometimes, stones are pre-soaked in an oxidative chemical solution (i.e., bleach) prior to tumbling with the garments. This increases the
decolourizing potential of the stones, enabling the release of bleach to specific areas of the fabric and the garment as the stones collide. Common oxidizing agents used for this purpose include chlorine derivatives (e.g., sodium or calcium hypochlorite) and potassium permanganate. In fact, the once-popular "acid wash" was achieved by tumbling garments with stones that had been pre-soaked in potassium permanganate.
Cellulase enzymes can also be used to accelerate wet abrasion effects (by removing, or at least weakening, the surface fibre), and can reduce, or in some cases, eliminate the need for stones altogether.

Wet abrasion is usually followed by a quick rinse intended to remove any remaining loose dye-stuff and/or residual dust from stones or other abrasive materials, and to deactivate remaining cellulase enzymes if necessary.

===Bleaching===
Bleaching is often used to lighten the colour of garments overall, to brighten the indigo dye used on denim products and to remove indigo dye-stuff that may have deposited on the (undyed) filling yarns during the wet abrasion process. Most garment bleaching is done with chlorine derivatives (usually sodium or calcium hypochlorite). Hypochlorite is a strong bleach, reactive enough to work well at cooler temperatures, and is effective at removing certain dye-stuffs from garments.

===Brightening===
Sometimes referred to as "top brightening," this garment washing technique may be utilized after bleaching to further whiten, or brighten, the decolourized areas of the garment, thereby enhancing the contrast between the light (or white) and dark areas in the fabric. This is sometimes accomplished using a milder bleaching agent (e.g., hydrogen peroxide), or may be accomplished by using an optical brightener. Optical brighteners (also known as fluorescent whitening agents or FWAs) are colourless dye-stuffs that have the ability to absorb invisible UV radiation and retransmit it as visible (white) light.

===Tinting/over-dyeing===
The application of additional colourant to garments that have already been dyed and/or printed is known as tinting or over-dyeing. If any areas of the garment are white (e.g., filling/weft yarns in denim garments), these will fully absorb the colourant, but dyed or printed areas will also pick up a degree of colour. All types of colourants (e.g., dyes, pigments, metal salts) may be used to tint fabrics, depending on the substrate. Over-dyeing with one colour changes the hue of the pre-existing colours and tends to "unify" the look of the print, often imparting a more vintage or dusty appearance to the fabric. For example, over-dyeing with a blue shade will turn browns into warm, deep grays, and will turn grays into soft blues. Over-dyeing with a red shade will turn browns into deep rust, and will turn greys into soft reds. Over-dyeing with secondary shades can result in even softer and more complex effects.

===Softening===
The final step of most garment washing operations is softener application, which can enhance the garment's hand, drape, abrasion resistance and even tear strength. There are many different types of chemicals that can function as softeners, including sulfates and sulfonates, amines and quaternary amines, ethylene oxide derivatives, and hydrocarbon waxes. Softener selection is primarily a function of the desired hand-feel: dry (petrochemical/polyethylene), greasy (organic/fatty derivatives), or slick (silicone). Roughly one-third of the chemicals used as softeners are silicone-based. Softeners work by reducing the coefficient of friction of fibres and yarns.

==Potential impacts==
Although dry processing techniques involve no chemicals, they do create environmental impacts, including extraction of abrasive media from natural habitats, the transport of material to the processing facility (often surprisingly long distances) and the landfilling of spent abrasive media. Dry techniques, such as sandblasting, can also involve considerable occupational health and safety hazards for operators, and proper safety precautions, such as appropriate personal protective equipment and adequate ventilation, must be in place—must not always is. Although sandblasting in Europe has been banned for decades, the practice is still abundant in Bangladesh and China, countries with a high likelihood of lack of enforcement for proper safety precautions.[1][2]

Garment washing is a relatively water-intensive process, and may also be energy- and chemical-intensive, depending on the nature of the wash used. The environmental impacts of garment washing include the discharge of chemicals (surfactants, chelating agents, acids, alkalis, oxidizing agents, reducing agents, heavy metals, etc.) and colourants into water systems, which contributes to aquatic toxicity and/or high biological demand (BOD) or chemical oxygen demand (COD). High BOD and COD create environments that are hostile to aquatic plants and animals and may create problems with water reuse. Any colour removed from the garments during the garment washing process is also dispelled to the wastewater and may create problems with photosynthesis for aquatic plant life.

In order to promote the permanence of colour on a textile substrate or garment, colourants and other chemicals used in textile and garment dyeing and printing are developed to be resistant to environmental influences. This durability sometimes limits the biodegradability of colourants and makes them difficult to remove from wastewater generated by dyeing or printing processes.

In terms of its environmental impact, hypochlorite used in bleaching breaks down into table salt, oxygen and water. But if hypochlorite is exposed to organic material before it breaks down, it can react with that material to form halogenated organic compounds (organochlorines). Halogenated organic compounds are persistent, toxic compounds, may bioaccumulate in the food chain, are known teratogens/mutagens and suspected human carcinogens, and may cause reproductive harm.

Toxicity and biodegradability of chemicals used as softeners are primary considerations. As a rule, fatty derivatives are highly biodegradable, whereas petrochemicals are not. Silicone is highly resistant to biodegradation by microorganisms (such as those used in biological wastewater treatment), but will degrade once it is in soil (e.g., in a landfill).

==Techniques to minimize pollutants, water use and energy consumption==
===Fabric selection===
One of the keys to reducing the environmental impact of garment washing processes is to select fabrics with desired garment hand-feel and aesthetic qualities engineered into the construction. If fabrics are physically engineered to exhibit desired qualities, the intensity (and by extension, the environmental impact) of many garment washing treatments can be minimized.

For example, the hand-feel of garments can be dramatically altered by modifying fibre diameter and cross-section, fibre length, fibre tenacity and modulus, yarn twist, yarn count, yarn hairiness, fabric stitch density, etc., thereby minimizing the need for hand-feel modification in garment washing. In many cases, only slight physical modifications are necessary (i.e., they are visually undetectable).

Similarly, the impacts of garment washing can be reduced significantly by selecting colours close to the desired final hue. Fifty percent or more of the colourant for deep shades is removed via abrasion or bleaching in garment washing. Selecting a colour closer to the desired garment shade after wash reduces the degree of decolourization (and associated energy, dye-stuff and waste) necessary.

===Water reuse===
In addition to minimizing the amount of water coming into a textile mill, water conservation can also occur after the wet processing is complete. A typical garment washing process may involve several wash cycles (e.g., desizing, wet abrasion, bleaching) as well as an assortment of rinses between cycles. This requires the garment washing machine to be drained and refilled numerous times. It's not unusual, for example, to use 35 or more gallons of water per garment during the garment washing process. In order for this water to be recycled and/or reused, it must contain little or no chlorine, and have low metal content and low salt concentration (e.g., chloride and sulfate). Alkalinity, pH and residual dyes are also of concern.

Some garment washers have reduced water consumption by 50% or more by reusing process water. Some municipalities have even started marketing recycled water (e.g., water treated via reverse osmosis) to industrial customers. In fact, treated and recycled water is sometimes more consistent in terms of its impurities than potable water.

===Frequency of machine cleanings===
Total water consumption in garment washing is also affected by the frequency of machine cleaning. In general, scheduling machines to process progressively darker shades—from light to dark—minimizes the need to clean the machine between each colour batch.

===Low-liquor-ratio washing===
One of the most important considerations, from a water and energy consumption perspective, is liquor ratio. Liquor ratio is the weight of the chemical bath (including the water) divided by the weight of the material (garments) being processed. Garment washing machines are available in a variety of sizes, and loads can vary widely depending on the nature and scale of the order. If the load size is small, and a large garment washing machine is used, the liquor ratio, the water volume and the energy used to heat that water will all be higher than necessary. Liquor ratio also affects the speed and level of fabric abrasion. In higher liquor ratio machines, garments and abrasive materials come into contact with each other less than in low-liquor-ratio circumstances. High liquor ratios therefore require more time (and energy) to achieve similar abrasion levels than low liquor ratios. As a rule, front-loading rotary washer/extractors have more flexible controls to accommodate various load sizes, enabling optimal water and energy use and minimizing waste.

===Proper chemical selection===
Another important element of pollution prevention is chemical selection. A wide variety of surfactants, chelating agents, oxidizing agents, reducing agents, enzymes, lubricants, colourants and other chemical types are routinely used in garment washing. Vendors generally elect chemicals based on their performance characteristics (effectiveness) and price, but must also factor environmental considerations such as toxicity, BOD, and COD into chemical selection decisions. In addition, the biodegradability of each chemical is of prime importance.
For example, alkyl phenol ethoxylates (commonly referred to as APEO), a common class of surfactant used in garment washing, are undesirable due to their poor biodegradability, their toxicity (including that of their phenolic metabolites) and their potential to act as endocrine disrupters. APEO are banned in Europe, and there are a host of wetter/scour alternatives readily available. Overseas garment washing operations may still use APEO surfactants because of their low cost and good performance characteristics. In general, chemicals and their processes should be selected to be the most benign. For some processes, enzymes can replace chemicals and include: amylases used for desizing, cellulases used for wet abrasion and laccases used for bleaching.

===Lasers===
Another alternative to traditional processes of decolourizing fabrics is the use of lasers. Depending on its wavelength, the laser can either: 1) be absorbed by and decompose the colourant, or 2) be absorbed by and alter the surface chemistry of the fabric. The latter technique in particular has great potential to replace traditional wet abrasion and mechanical abrasion techniques such as hand sanding because it closely emulates the results these traditional abrasion processes achieve. Lasers for this purpose are already commercially available and several are in use in laundries around the world.

===Bleaching alternatives===
There are two technologies designed to replace chlorine derivative bleaches: ozone and enzyme-based processes. Ozone can be used with no water at all and is very effective at fading pre-dyed/pre-printed fabrics and garments. Laccase is an enzyme that has proven effective at decolourizing or fading pre-dyed/pre-printed apparel products. Enzymes are biodegradable (no-waste products) and typically work well at low temperatures, thereby minimizing energy consumption.

===Combination/eliminationof garment washing processes===
Another possibility for pollution prevention is the combination, or even the elimination, of specific garment washing processes. For example, denim desizing and wet abrasion have long been performed using two completely separate garment washing treatments, each with its own environmental impact. Desizing is performed using an amylase enzyme or oxidizing agent, followed by a wet abrasion treatment using stones, cellulase enzymes or both. It is sometimes possible to combine these two cycles into one, which significantly reduces process time as well as water, energy and chemical consumption. However, combining desizing and wet abrasion processes can present specific technical issues, such as severe streaking and back staining from the large amounts of dye present in the desizing bath.

These issues can be overcome by using two specific types of cellulase enzyme in combination—one designed for abrasion assistance, and the other designed for streak reduction/prevention. Enzymes are added to the processing bath in a specific sequence or are selected to have an appropriate "dormant" period (i.e., the enzyme is not activated until the proper time during the washing cycle). This strategy is sometimes called a “combi-process.”

===Waste minimization/source reduction===
Strong consideration should be given to whether a garment washing process is truly warranted. On certain products (e.g., denim), some form of garment washing is necessary—to remove the sizing agents present on the warp yarns, for example. On other products, such as knit tops, garment washing may not always be required. For example, where garment washing is performed to reduce the hairiness/pilling propensity of knit garments, fibre selection (e.g., less short fibre or lower-tenacity fibre)and/or modifications to the yarn (less twist) can sometimes eliminate that need. Where garment washing is performed to reduce the torque/skew or shrinkage in garments, some procedures in the manufacture of the fabric, such as Sanforizing, may suffice. And where garment washing is used to achieve a faded aesthetic, starting with a fabric shade closer to the desired garment shade after wash can significantly reduce the degree of decolourization (and associated energy, dye-stuff and waste) necessary.

===Eco-aging===
Eco-aging is an alternative to sandblasting created by Fimatex in Italy. It’s a fading process that uses a vegetable mix composed of waste from food and is said to be biodegradable.[3]

== Optimize sustainability benefits ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="background-color:#66cdaa;width:200px;color:#ffffff" | DESIGN OPPORTUNITY
! style="background-color:#66cdaa;width:200px;color:#ffffff" | CONSIDERATIONS
|-
| '''Look for opportunities to avoid garment washing.'''|| Fabric suppliers will need prompting to show physically engineered fabrics, if these wash-saving processes have not been requested before.
|-
| '''Select fabrics that are closer in shade to the desired garment shade after wash.'''|| Speaking with a technical person, rather than a sales person, may be necessary.
|-
| '''Encourage water conservation with existing suppliers and/or seek new suppliers that use water conservation techniques. Create awareness that water and energy conservation is important and possible, without sacrificing hand-feel or aesthetic.'''
|| Water use by garment laundries varies widely.
|-
| '''Water use by garment laundries varies widely.'''|| Water treatment by garment laundries varies widely.
|-
| '''Leverage the aesthetic differences that low impact garment washes offer. Turn the differences into positive stories.'''||
|}

== Marketing opportunities ==

1. Water conservation (gallons of water saved per item) when ozone bleaching is used.

2. '''non-chlorine bleached:''' If alternative bleach is used.

3. Laser treatments replacing conventional wet abrasion finishes could appeal to an increasingly tech-savvy consumer base.

4. Providing educational information on the social responsibility or brand website could detail information about lower impact processes for washing, finishing and bleaching.

== Sources ==

# blog.stylesight.com/denim/sandblasting-ban-update
# www.mercurynews.com/business/ci_24407198/retailer-sandblasting-bans-have-changed-little-garment-industry
# www.fimatexgroup.it/

Dyeing & Printing

2015-04-27T08:30:03Z

MichaelaRudolph:

Colour is a critically important part of a fabric or garment, and one of the single most important factors in the appeal and marketability of an apparel product, particularly during the "interest" phase of the consumer purchasing decision. An inappropriate or unattractive colour may make a garment unmarketable no matter what the quality of the fibre, the yarn, the weave or knit, or the finish. Conversely, a poor-quality fabric may achieve big seller status purely because of its colour. Aside from its attractiveness, colour permanence (i.e., fastness) is important; most problems that consumers have with textile and apparel products are associated with colour fading, bleeding or colour staining (crocking).
At one time, colourants were limited to natural dyes and pigments obtained from plants, insects and minerals. The first synthetic dye was developed in 1856 and by the early 20th century, a wide range of synthetic dyes were readily available. Today, the textile and apparel industry uses well over 1 million tonnes of colourant annually, almost all of which is manufactured synthetically.
Adding colour to a textile substrate is a complex process. Slight differences in fabric caused by minor irregularities in fibre, yarn, fabric, or finishing can result in obvious colour variations in finished products. Fibre chemistry also plays an important role. A match between the chemistry of the colourant and that of the fibre is necessary in order for the colour to be permanent. In addition, during use, any textile may be exposed to a wide variety of potential colour degradants such as detergent, perspiration, dry-cleaning solvents, sunlight, makeup, etc. To achieve a durable colour, the colourant must be attached to or trapped within the fibre by using a combination of heat, pressure and chemicals. Fibre crystallinity, chemical finishes, and fabric and yarn structure are all factors that influence the success of dyeing and printing.

==Overview of environmental concerns in dyeing & printing==
• '''Formaldehyde''' common ingredient of dispersing agents (for vat, sulfur, and disperse dyes), printing pastes (ingredient of resins added to promote cross-linking between binders and fibres), and colourant fixatives 
• '''Heavy metals''' found in dye-stuffs, dyeing auxiliary chemicals and print pastes (as PVC stabilizers); often an unintended contaminant found in numerous chemicals 
• '''PVC and phthalates''' used in plastisol printing pastes 
• '''Residual colour in wastewater''' due to poor exhaustion and/or fixation of colourants 
• '''Salt''' used to promote exhaustion of reactive and direct dyes onto cotton substrates 
• '''Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)''' in print pastes (particularly solvent-based) 
• '''High biological oxygen demand (BOD) or chemical oxygen demand (COD)''' caused by substances in the wastewater after dyeing and finishing. BOD and COD create environments that are hostile to aquatic plants and animals.

==Synthetic colourants==
Synthetic colourants are man-made and cost less than natural colourants, are offered in a diverse range of colours, are more colour-fast and easy to apply. 
Chromophores are an essential part of the colourant's chemical structure, and are partly responsible for a chemical's ability to project colour. Chromophores are limited in terms of the fibres upon which they can be used (i.e., limited to certain dye classes), the number of hues possible, the intensity of colour required, and/or cost. 
More than 50% of all commercial colourants contain one or more functional chromophores known to the azo group. Many dye classes make use of azo groups (e.g., direct, azoic, reactive, acid, basic), as do some pigments, so their presence is not limited to any particular textile fibre or substrate. Under certain conditions, they can break down to form aromatic amines, which can then be released from the fabric or garment and may be carcinogenic. The use of certain colourants that contain azo groups— mostly those that can release higher concentrations of amines— is forbidden in many parts of the world. This includes around a dozen acid dyes (normally used with nylon and wool) and numerous direct dyes (used with cellulosic fibres). 
Anthraquinone is the second most common chromophore. Anthraquinone chromophores are found in vat, reactive, disperse, acid dyes, and in some pigments, so they can be used on cellulosic fibres such as cotton or rayon and on synthetic fibres such as polyester and nylon. Anthraquinone colourants are often brighter than their azo counterparts, but are limited in terms of shade depth.

====Potential impacts====
Chemicals used in textile and garment dyeing and printing are developed to be resistant to environmental influences. This durability sometimes limits the biodegradability of colourants and makes them difficult to remove from wastewater generated by dyeing or printing processes. Conventional treatments tend to transfer waste from one place to another. For example, solids extracted from wastewater are sometimes hazardous and are disposed into special landfills, where they can cause groundwater contamination, gas formation and noxious odours. 
Certain types of dyes are suspected carcinogens and mutagens, while other disperse dyes are known to have a sensitizing effect on skin and should be avoided. Turquoise blue and greens contain metals, such as copper and nickel, as part of the dye molecule. Metals can cause toxicity in aquatic environments. Metal-containing colourants can be replaced with colourants that do not contain metals or contain lower metal content, though this is sometimes at the expense of colourfastness. These dyes are carcinogenic or mutagenic colourants and should be completely avoided: CI Basic Red 9, CI Disperse Blue 1, CI Acid Red 26, CI Basic Violet 14, CI Disperse Orange 11, CI Direct Black 38, CI Direct Blue 6, CI Direct Red 28, and CI Disperse Yellow 3.

== Natural colourants ==
Natural colourants are produced or extracted from plants, arthropods and marine invertebrates (e.g., sea urchins and starfish), algae, bacteria, fungi, and minerals. Sources for natural colourants include cochineal, mollusks, roots, berries, bark, lichen, carrots, artichokes and other natural matter. 
In order to achieve acceptable colourfastness, mordants are almost always necessary to properly fix natural colourants to textile and apparel substrates. Mordants increase colourfastness by combining with both the colourant molecule and the fibre molecule. The most commonly used mordants for natural dyes are chromium, aluminum, iron, copper, tin and other heavy metal salts. 
A major challenge with natural colourants is producing natural colourants in large quantities, at a reasonable cost, and to achieve comparable colourfastness. 
Obtaining a full palette of colours using natural colourants remains a challenge, as does repeatability, light fastness and durability to wear. Furthermore, in production it’s extremely difficult to produce the same natural dye shade twice, even when using exactly the same dyeing technique and procedure. For these reasons, natural dyes remain niche in the commercial fashion world, and are well suited to the “slow fashion” movement, which emphasizes locality, difference and diversity, though new technologies may at some point bring natural dyes to wider economic viability.
====Potential impacts====
It requires approximately 1 pound of fresh plant to produce the colouring power of one gram of synthetic colourant. In a world of increasing human population and declining natural resources, land use for food vs. colouring material will be hotly contested.
== Printing: application of colour ==
Printing is the patterned application of colour. Since the colourants and auxiliary chemicals used in printing are similar to those used in dyeing, many of the environmental concerns are shared between these processes. However, to obtain the sharply defined, precise, reproducible patterns typical in printed textiles it's necessary to use special liquids, known as pastes or inks that have a high degree of viscosity (i.e., they're in a "gel" state). The printing ink, which typically includes colourants, binders, softeners, thickeners and other auxiliary chemicals, can be directly applied to the substrate using mesh screens, engraved rollers, ink-jet printers and can be indirectly applied to the substrate using pre-printed transfer paper. 
The two main types of printing inks are pigmented emulsions and plastisol inks.
=== Emulsion inks ===
Emulsion inks are used mainly for direct printing of fabrics and are typically based on aqueous dispersions (i.e., water-based) of a binder and cross-linking agent. Emulsion inks can be solvent-based, although their use is rare in textile and garment printing.
====Potential impacts====
Solvent-based inks have high volatile organic content (aliphatic, aromatic and oxygenated organic solvents), and can cause problems with air pollution and waste disposal.
=== Plastisol inks ===
Plastisol inks are primarily used for direct and indirect (transfer) printing of garments and are typically vinyl resin (PVC) dispersed in plasticizer. In garment printing, PVC serves as a binder that melts into, or fuses with, the garment while bearing the solid pigment. Plastisol inks contain plasticizers, which soften the naturally rigid PVC to give it the flexibility to keep from cracking. When used as a transfer, the plastisol ink is screen-printed onto a release paper and cured to a dry film, which is then stored until being transferred onto a garment using a heat transfer process.
====Potential impacts====
Plastisols do not biodegrade. One byproduct of their production (and of disposal via incineration) is dioxin, an acutely toxic
substance.
If landfilled, heavy metals sometimes used as PVC stabilizers, such as lead or cadmium, can contaminate groundwater.
Plasticizers are often phthalate esters, which may leach out of the print or may evaporate and be released during drying, either during the production process or in the home. Exposure to phthalates is known to cause adverse health effects, and several phthalates are banned by the California’s Prop 65 law in the United States.
===Discharge (removal of colour)===
Whereas printing is the patterned application of colour, discharge printing is the patterned removal of colour. In other words, the fabric or garment is dyed prior to printing (commonly known as the "ground" colour or shade), and then printed with a paste or ink containing a chemical discharge agent. The discharge agent is capable of destroying the chromophoric system of the original colourant(s) under appropriate conditions, thereby severely degrading/fading the colour or removing it altogether. Many reducing agents, oxidizing agents, acids, salts and alkalis can function as discharge agents. All colourants react differently to these agents; some are dramatically affected, while others are largely or completely resistant. If more-resistant and less-resistant colourants are combined into one dyed ground shade and then discharge printed, the area to which the agent is applied creates a shift in hue. Colourants that are resistant to the discharge agent can also be included in the print paste itself, so that they effectively "replace" the discharged colourant(s). This replacement colour is sometimes referred to as the "effect" colour. 
The most common reducing agents used in discharge printing are metal salts of formaldehyde-sulphoxylic acid, such as zinc, sodium or calcium formaldehyde-sulphoxylate. An alternative, but less frequently used agent, is thiourea dioxide.
===Zinc formaldehyde-sulphoxylate (zfs)===
Zinc formaldehyde-sulphoxylate (commonly known as ZFS) is particularly popular, because it helps to cure the acrylic binders commonly included in the discharge print paste. When combined with appropriate inks and a humectant, ZFS can be used in dry as well as wet or moist heat conditions.
====Potential impacts====
Releases formaldehyde during the discharge reaction process. Formaldehyde is retained in the fabric. Formaldehyde is a toxic air pollutant, a volatile organic compound, is allergenic and/or carcinogenic in certain conditions, and is heavily regulated.
===Thiourea dioxide===
Unlike formaldehyde-sulphoxylates, thiourea dioxide neither contains nor releases formaldehyde. However, its effectiveness in discharging colour is limited to a narrower range of colourants and its effect is noticeably weaker than formaldehyde-sulphoxylates. Thiourea dioxide also requires steaming and thorough washing after the discharge print paste is applied.
====Potential impacts====
Requires steaming and thorough washing after the discharge print paste is applied.
== Dyeing: Reactive and directive dyes ==
When reactive or direct dyes are used to dye cotton, the use of salt—usually sodium chloride or sodium sulfate (also known as Glauber's salt)—is necessary to promote exhaustion (uptake and fastness) of the dye onto the cotton substrate. Sodium chloride is less expensive and contains more sodium per unit mass than Glauber’s salt, so less salt is needed in the dye solution. However, Glauber's salt is less corrosive (particularly to dyeing machines) and produces brighter shades when used with some classes of dyes. In general, reactive dyes require 5-10 times more salt than direct dyes, and dark shades require 5-10 times more salt than light shades. 
In addition to dye class and shade depth considerations, the amount of salt required in dyeing cloth is dependent upon the volume of the dye bath solution in relation to the mass of the material being dyed. This “liquor ratio” can vary widely depending on the dyeing equipment used. Some garment dyeing machines require as much as 400 gallons of dyebath for every pound of material dyed, whereas the commonly used jet dyeing systems require 80 gallons or less. In other words, the former would require five times more salt in the dying process than the latter.
====Potential impacts====
Salt use in textile dyeing is a serious environmental issue, since it is used in such large quantities and is a major source of aquatic toxicity in wastewater. Moreover, the removal of salt from wastewater is extremely difficult and expensive using current treatment methods. 
Low- or no-salt developments are therefore of great interest in the chemical dye industry. Direct dyes use less salt than reactive dyes, but their attraction to cotton is relatively weak, and they are often treated with special fixing agents to improve colourfastness. Cationic fixing agents (usually quaternary ammonium compounds) are commonly used to improve wash fastness, and copper sulfate is sometimes used to improve light fastness. Both are major concerns in terms of aquatic toxicity.
== Reduce environmenal impacts of dyeing & printing ==
=== Naturally coloured cotton ===
Naturally coloured cotton has existed for more than 5000 years. Naturally coloured cotton has pigmentation in the center, or lumen, of the fibre and the colour depth and shade varies with growing conditions, location and climatic factors. Generally speaking, natural colours range from shades of cream and tan to tones of brown, red and green, although purple, mauve, grey and black cottons are theoretically also possible. 
Over the past twenty years, considerable work has been done to cross breed coloured cotton fibres to both expand the range of available colours and to improve the fibre length and quality. As a rule, naturally coloured cotton suffers from lower agricultural yields, making it economically challenging to produce, and therefore expensive to the mills and manufacturers. Brown fibre is typically 2-3 times the cost of white cotton fibres, and green fibre approximately 4 times the cost of white fibres. Coloured cotton fibre also lacks important quality characteristics such as fineness, length and strength, and requires special handling through ginning and spinning, since the colour can catch on equipment and contaminate the batches of white cotton fibre most commonly processed through the facility. 
For these reasons, naturally coloured cotton fibres are usually blended with white cotton to improve quality, facilitate processing and reduce costs. Though blending reduces the colour intensity of the end product, washing the yarn or laundering the product in alkaline solution can enrich hues. The strength of 100% coloured cotton can also be improved by plying several ends of yarns together (2 or 3 ply), though this increases cost. Coloured cotton yarns can also be plied with white cotton yarns to bring cost down. Coloured cotton fibre properties can differ profoundly by colour and are largely dictated by the cultivation practices by the type of seed used. In terms of colourfastness, brown and beige cottons generally outperform greens.
=== “right-first-time" dyeing ===
Without question, the most effective pollution prevention practice in colouring cloth is "right-first-time" dyeing. Corrective measures such as reworks, re-dyes, stripping, shade adjustments, top-ups or "adds" are all chemically intensive and contribute significantly to pollution, since each corrective action increases colourant and/or chemical and water use.
=== Spun dyeing ===
Synthetic fibres can be coloured by introducing pigments or dyes into the polymer melt prior to extrusion. Spun dyeing reduces water and pollution associated traditional dyeing, and can also produce favorable chartacertisitcs, such as such as uniform colouration, level shade, a high degree of light fastness, relatively low cost and cleanliness.
=== Auxiliary chemicals ===
Auxiliary chemicals can be selected to minimize or reduce the environmental impact of dyeing and printing processes. For example, acetic acid, which has a relatively high biological oxygen demand (BOD), is used in a variety of textile and garment processes for pH adjustment. Formic acid, which has a much lower BOD, or dilute mineral acids, which have no BOD, can sometimes be substituted for acetic acid. 
In addition to chemical substitution, harmful auxiliary chemicals can sometimes be completely avoided by changing operating conditions. For example, "carriers" are organic chemicals that are often used as dyeing assistants when dyeing hydrophobic synthetic fibres such as polyester. In essence, carriers "open" the synthetic fibre, thereby increasing the rate of dyeing. The most common carriers are chlorinated benzenes and biphenyl. As a rule, carriers are extremely volatile and are also toxic, and they contribute significantly to toxic air pollution. But if dyeing takes place at a high enough temperature, carriers are unnecessary. In order to reach the required temperature (at least 129° C), a pressurized dyeing vessel is necessary. Many dyeing facilities have pressurized dyeing machines, but not all.
=== Low-liquor-ratio dyeing ===
A typical dye bath comprises salt, acids and alkalis, lubricants, and dispersing agents, all of which can contribute to pollution. These chemicals are measured in proportion to the volume of water used, and so lower volume dye baths greatly reduce chemical use and disposal in wastewater. Lower volume dye baths also require less energy for heating. Standard liquor ratios range from 10:1 to 15:1 for many exhaust dyeing operations. Low- liquor-ratio machines are capable of dyeing at liquor ratios closer to 5:1, with some as low as 3:1. Some dye systems can operate effectively at room temperature, eliminating the need for heating altogether. It's important to note that low-liquor-ratio dyeing often limits the choice of dye class used (i.e., to more water-soluble dyes), and that existing equipment cannot normally be "retrofitted" to make it operate at lower liquor ratios; investment in new equipment is usually necessary.
=== Dyebath reuse ===
Dyebath reuse is the process by which exhausted hot dye-baths are analyzed for residual colourant concentrations, replenished and, rather than being dispelled as wastewater, are reused to dye further batches of fabric. Dye-bath reuse requires that colourants undergo minimal change during the dyeing process. Direct, disperse, acid or basic dyes are therefore best for reuse applications. Dye-bath reuse carries a greater risk of shade variation, because impurities can build up and decrease the reliability of the process over the longer term. Capital is also required to purchase and install the appropriate infrastructure (e.g., holding tanks, pumps) to effectively reuse dye baths. When properly controlled, some dyebaths can be reused for 5-25 cycles.
=== Pad-batch dyeing ===
Pad-batch dyeing is a cold dyeing method mainly used for dyeing cellulosics (100% cotton and polyester/cotton blends) and can result in significant reductions in pollution and water and energy consumption (50-80% water and energy savings are common). No salt or chemical auxiliaries are necessary and the colourant exhaustion is much higher (which means less colour released into the wastewater). Moreover, quality is often more consistent compared to other exhaust dyeing techniques. Capital outlay is also low. However, pad-batch dyeing requires significant floor space to store dyed batches for long periods of time to allow the colour to permeate the cloth. Many dye houses lack the needed space, and brands don’t always have the time to accommodate the longer production processing time.
=== Ink-jet printing (also known as digital printing) ===
Ink-jet printing is arguably the cleanest printing technology. Ink-jet printing is a noncontact printing method that works much like an office printer—droplets of colourant are propelled toward a substrate and directed to a desired spot. Colourant types that work best with ink-jet printing include reactive, vat, sulfur, and napthol dyes, although acid, basic, and disperse dyes, or even pigments, can also be used in some cases. Ink-jet printing eliminates the need for many printing auxiliary chemicals (e.g., thickener), eliminates the need for screen, squeegee, and machine cleaning (which also dramatically reduces water consumption), and reduces waste generated from strikeoffs. Though ink-jet printing machines represent a capital investment, and production speeds are still relatively slow compared to analogue printing, ink-jet can offer significant savings for short production runs.
=== Transfer printing ===
With transfer printing, dye is printed on paper and then the paper carries the dye to secondary process where the colour is moved onto the fabric without the use of water and associated pollution associated with more typical jet dyeing systems. Transfer printing has poor fibre penetration, however. 
AirDye is a propriety technology heat transfer printing technology that achieves greater penetration than traditional heat transfer printing by using a proprietary set of dyes. The AirDye process creates rich hues and achieves higher colour fastness. AirDye is suitable only for synthetics, and is readily used on polyester and nylon.
==Optimize sustainability benefits==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="background-color:#66cdaa;width:300px;color:#ffffff" | DESIGN OPPORTUNITY
! style="background-color:#66cdaa;width:300px;color:#ffffff" | PRODUCTION OPPORTUNITY
! style="background-color:#66cdaa;width:300px;color:#ffffff" | CONSIDERATIONS
|-
| Work with mills and vendors that use low impact colourants (e.g., low COD/BOD, no metals, no formaldehyde). || Promote mills and vendors that use low impact colourants (e.g., low COD/BOD, no metals, no formaldehyde). 
Forbid the use of carcinogenic/mutagenic colourants, restricted azo colourants and organic solvent-based colourants.
|| Carcinogenic/mutagenic colourants are never acceptable.
|-
| Work with printers that offer alternatives to PVC printing (e.g., resist printing, novel techniques such as Rehance printing) and low- or no- formaldehyde, low- or no- metal plastisol variants. || Promote printers who offer PVC print alternatives and avoid phthalate plasticizers. 
Promote plastisol printers who offer low- or no-formaldehyde, low- or no- metal plastisol variants.
|| Colourfastness/durability of print may be poorer, and hand-feel may be affected
|-
| Develop discharge prints with printers who use low impact colourants and discharge agents. 
Avoid ZFS, heavy metals and formaldehyde. Develop with printers who offer alternatives to discharge printing (e.g., resist printers, novel techniques such as Rehance printing).
|| Promote discharge printers that use low impact discharge agents. 
Discourage the use of ZFS. 
Promote discharge printers who avoid heavy metals and formaldehyde.
|| May alter the product’s aesthetic.
|-
| Avoid carriers used to dye polyester fabrics whenever possible. ||Do not use mills and vendors that use carriers when dyeing synthetics. 
Promote mills that use high-pressure dyeing equipment.
|| High pressure dye systems generally use more energy
|-
| Promote lighter cotton shades and use of direct dyes in order to minimize salt volume and waste. ||Promote mills and vendors that use low- or and no-salt dyeing techniques.
|| If proper colourants are selected and more sophisticated equipment is used (e.g., automated dosing), salt can be reduced dramatically.
|-
| Look for naturally coloured cotton design and merchandising opportunities. Emphasize and feature positive physical and colour performance properties.
|| Naturally coloured cotton is highly variable. Find the “good” suppliers.
|| Coloured cotton used in 100% produces weak yarn that can snap when making fabric. Use plied yarns in 100% or blend coloured with white fibre to improve yarn strength.
|-
| Design tonal colour range collections that are easier to work with in reuse dye bath systems.
||Find and promote mills and vendors that reuse dyebaths. ||
|-
| Work with mills who pad-batch dye cotton to minimize salt, water and energy use.
|| Find and promote ink-jet printers. ||
|-
| ||Promote proper wastewater treatment. ||
|-
| || Promote the use of spun dyed fibres. || Spun dyed fibres reduce water and pollution associated with more traditional dyeing.
|-
| Use natural colourants on protein fibres such as silk and wool, where their colourfastness and durability is optimized. 
Design natural dyes to fade beautifully.
||
|| Natural colours are expensive and it can be difficult to achieve light fastness, wash fastness and long-term durability. Be prepared to accommodate different performance parameters. (colourfastness, repeatability, etc.).
|-
| Know the source and cultivation details of natural dye plants, and ensure they are sustainably grown.|| Promote mills and vendors that have in-depth knowledge of natural colourants and avoid metal salt mordants.||
|}

== Sources ==
http://www.fibre2fashion.com
AirDye Environmental Profile: Life Cycle Assessment (undated).

POLYLACTIDE (PLA)

2015-04-24T13:12:58Z

MichaelaRudolph: Created page with "Polyactide (PLA) is mainly made from sugars derived from corn, though any abundantly available sugar, such as wheat, sugar beets or sugarcane could also be used. PLA is a new..."

Polyactide (PLA) is mainly made from sugars derived from corn, though any abundantly available sugar, such as wheat, sugar beets or sugarcane could also be used. PLA is a new class of polymer that is biodegradable under optimum conditions. Ingeo from NatureWorks LLC is a readily available brand name of PLA.[1]
== Benefits ==
Polylactide (PLA) is a fibre-forming substance that is composed of at least 85% by weight of lactic acid ester units derived from naturally occurring sugars.[2] It can be derived from sugars found in corn, sugar beets, wheat, rice potatoes … basically any starchy plant can be used.3 It is then melt- spun in a process similar to conventional polyester.[3]
Polylactide reduces the use of petroleum, which is a non-renewable resource, and associated greenhouse gas emissions.
Polylactide has excellent resiliency, outstanding crimp retention and good wicking ability. It has good thermal insulation, breathability, high UV protection and excellent hand and drape.[2] PLA has natural resistance to staining, low odour retention, and can be machine-washed and dried, with no need to iron.
Polylactide is fully biodegradable (as long as component parts of the garment are also made from PLA), and optimum composting conditions are present.
The use of PLA could allow Europe to reduce its reliance on foreign sources of fossil fuels. Europe meets its oil consumption/needs by importing from foreign sources such as the Russian Federation, Africa and the Midlde East (only 14% comes from Europe).[4][5]
== Potential impacts ==
===Processing===
Land degradation from intensive agriculture to meet human demands for food, fibre and fuel have resulted in land degradation of over 25% of the world’s agricultural land, pastures, woodlands and forest.[6]
Polylactide is relatively new on the market and has to go through further development to improve its performance characteristics, price and scalability. For example, heat setting cannot always be performed properly, and consequently PLA fabric has a low melting point, which can affect dimensional stability during storage, transportation, dyeing, ironing, transfer printing, etc.[7]
===End of use===
Polylactide is biodegradable, but only under optimum conditions. PLA will not biodegrade in landfills. It requires a balance of oxygen, moisture, aeration and steady temperatures of 49-60 ºC—a balance that is typically found in industrial composting facilities. Home compost heaps do not provide the required combination of temperature and humidity to trigger decomposition.[7]
Furthermore, PLA cannot go into the regular recycling bin and can contaminate a batch of PET. There is currently no standard system for differentiating PLA plastics.
When used in combination with non-renewables, PLA cannot be claimed as biodegradable.
==Optimize sustainability benefits==
• Connect to or develop infrastructure to collect and process compostable fibres.

• Label garments for consumers and identify composting routes for biodegradable fibres, to ensure they remain separate from degradable and non-degradable synthetics.

• Use non-genetically modified, organically grown feedstock.

• Check colour matching, as dark colours can be difficult to achieve.

• Ensure requirements are met in terms of light and colour fastness.
==Availability==
Ingeo, a brand name for polylactide, is readily available from NatureWorks LLC. There are also sources in Belgium, Italy and the United Kingdom producing polylactide for non-wovens.
==Applications==
Pillows, comforters, mattress pads, performance activewear, fashion apparel, outdoor furniture and non-wovens, such as diapers.
==Marketing opportunities==
'''XX% bio-based content''' Confirm the percentage of bio-based content for accurate labeling. 
'''biodegradable''' In order for polylactide to successfully biodegrade, it must be disposed of into a composting facility. Not only do customers have to dispose of PLA properly, but the proper infrastructure must be in place in order to process it. Can not claim “biodegradable” if these areas have not been investigated or communicated. To be labeled as biodegradable, documentation is required to substantiate that the product can completely break down into non-toxic material.
==Innovation opportunities==
1. Design completely biodegradable garments where all fibres and component parts compost fully and safely. 
2. Partner with composting facilities to guarantee effectiveness of composting ability. 
3. Design garments and products with reusable trims, and a biodegradable body. Design the product so that non-biodegradable trims, tags, buttons, etc., can be easily separated from the main body of the product at the end of its useful life. Create collection systems for the products. Collect products and separate trims from biodegradable PLA body. Distribute PLA to compost facility, and reuse trims. 
4. Communicate to customers proper route of disposal. 
5. Get your product Cradle to Cradle Certified. The Cradle to Cradle CertifiedTM Product Standard is a multi-attribute, continuous improvement methodology that provides a path to manufacturing healthy and sustainable products. The Standard rewards achievement in five categories and at five levels of certification. An accredited assessor will help to assess and optimize your product.
==Sources==
# https://www.natureworksllc.com
# Freinkel, Susan. PLASTIC A Toxic Love Story. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011.
# Cohen, Allen and Ingrid Johnson. Fabric Science. New York: Fairchild Books, 2010.
# “Monthly and cumulated Crude Oil Imports (volumes and prices) by EU and non EU country,” 2012.
# ec.europa.eu/energy/observatory/oil/import_export_en.htm
# Doran, “International Workshop on Assessing the Sustainability of Bio-Based Products,” 2003

Wood viscose

2015-04-24T09:38:57Z

MichaelaRudolph: /* Sources */

Viscose made from wood is categorized as a “manufactured” or “man-made” fibre created from cellulose found in trees. It is typically derived from spruce or pine (although any plants or trees can be used to make viscose) and is then chemically processed and regenerated to form a new polymer using the viscose process.
Although viscose is generally not considered a sustainable fibre due to its highly chemical process, new forms of viscose-type materials are emerging—such as lyocell—that have the same material characteristic, but are produced by non-toxic processes and operate in a closed loop system where outputs are recovered, filtered and reused.[1]
== Benefits ==
Viscose is the oldest manufactured fibre. The viscose process was developed in the late 1800s as an inexpensive alternative to silk. Viscose has a silk-like aesthetic, drapes well, is easy to dye, and is highly absorbent. It is a good conductor of heat, so it is a cool, comfortable fibre good for use in warm weather.
Viscose is also relatively inexpensive compared to other fibres, and blends well with many fibres—sometimes used to reduce cost, or contribute lustre, softness, absorbency or comfort.[1]
== Potential impacts ==
===Cultivation===
Wood feedstock may be sourced from ancient and endangered forest.[2]
===Processing===
To transform hardwood-derived materials into silky fabric, the cellulose must be separated from other compounds found in trees. Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and sodium sulfide are commonly used to remove the lignin that binds the wood fibres together, and in some cases bleach is required to whiten the pulp. In a complex process the pulp is steeped in caustic soda to produce alkali cellulose, which is then aged or oxidized before reacting with carbon disulfide to create sodium cellulose xanthate. This xanthate is dissolved in caustic soda to form a syrup-like spinning solution or “viscose,” which can then be extruded through a spinneret to form viscose fibres.[3]

The viscose manufacturing process is chemically intensive and requires copious amounts of water. Wastewater effluents from processing must be properly treated to avoid contamination of surrounding water bodies. Air emissions caused by the viscose process include sulfur, nitrous oxides, carbon disulfide and hydrogen disulfide. Chronic exposure to carbon disulfide can cause damage to the nervous system in humans.[3]
===Dyeing and printing===
The dyeing processes for viscose is a multi-step process that involves ample amounts of water at high temperatures (50°-95°C), salt, acetic acid and caustic soda. Mild peroxide bleach may also be necessary to remove residues of sulfur.

===Consumer care/washing===
Viscose is typically dry-clean only, due to delicacy of the fabric when wet. Some types of viscose can be machine or handwashed.
Electricity and water use in the care of the garment can cause significant environmental impacts. Certain chemicals used in dry-cleaning and at-home products have been reported to have detrimental effects on humans and the environment, and contribute to ozone depletion and can pollute wastewater.
===End of use===
According to the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in the United States, viscose products are non-biodegradable because they will not break down in the required time under customary disposal conditions.[7]
Viscose is typically used in fast-fashion garments that are worn and quickly discarded. If these garments end up in landfill, they are likely to remain there for decades.
==Optimize sustainability benefits==

• Discourage suppliers from using old-growth trees as feedstock for viscose fabrics, especially those harvested from the following endangered forest areas: Canadian boreal forest; coastal temperate Rainforests of the Pacific Northwest; US; Chile; Tropical forests of Indonesia; and the Amazon.[2]

• Encourage suppliers to use raw materials sourced from responsibly managed forests registered in the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification system and/or sourced from Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification schemes (PEFC) and Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certified forests.[2]
===Lenzing Viscose®===
Lenzing Viscose® gives more attention to overall sustainability. The various chemical and waste products that result from the production process are recycled or sold. Viscose from Lenzing is PEFC certified, which means that the raw material is sourced from responsibly managed forests.
Lenzing Viscose® and Lenzing Modal® Austria are the only man-made fibres which are carbon neutral.
===Lyocell===
New forms of viscose-type materials are emerging, and can be made through various types of processes, including lyocell. Lyocell material properties are similar to traditional viscose and fibre production is also similar to that of generic viscose in that hardwood material is dissolved through an intensive chemical process into a pulp, which is then extruded to form fibres. However, for lyocell, the solvent used to transform the pulp into fibre is amine oxide (NMMO=N-Methyl-Morpholine-N-Oxide), which is considered non-toxic. The lyocell fibre manufacturing process also operates as a closed loop system, in which 99% of the solvent is recovered,
filtered and reused. Any remaining emissions are broken down harmlessly in biological wastewater treatment plants.[9]
===OEKO-TEX certified viscose===
OEKO-TEX is an independent, third party certifier that offers two certifications for textiles: OEKO-TEX 100 (for products) and OEKO-TEX 1000 (for production sites/factories). OEKO-TEX 100 label aims to ensure that products pose no risk to health. OEKO-TEX certified products do not contain allergenic dye-stuffs and dye-stuffs that form carcinogenic aryl-amines. The certification process includes thorough testing for a long list of chemicals. Specifically banned are: AZO dyes, carcinogenic and allergy-inducing dyes, pesticides, chlorinated phenols, extractable heavy metals, emissions of volatile components, and more.[10]
==Availability==
There are a few suppliers in China that are currently offering viscose from PEFC and FSC certified forests. Expressing interest in PEFC and FSC certification can influence the supplier’s raw material sourcing strategy and lead to greater availability of responsibly sourced feedstock for viscose fabric.
OEKO-TEK® Standard 100 certified viscose is available. Manufacturers can be found at: https://www.oeko-tex.com

==Application==
Viscose and lyocell can be used in a variety of textile woven and knitted applications. Depending on the weight and construction of the cloth, these fabrics may be suitable for shirts, skirts, dresses, evening gowns, home furnishings and bedding.
==Marketing opportunities==
'''lyocell process''' If processed with a lyocell process. 
'''PEFC-certified''' Must be verified, and can be claimed on POS items at retail. 
'''FSC-certified''' Must be verified, and can be claimed on POS items at retail. 
'''Lenzing Viscose®''' If verified and used. 
'''OEKO-TEK® Standard 100 certified''' If verified and used. 
==Innovation opportunities==
1. Shift to existing environmentally beneficial fabrics when possible. These fabrics include fabric derived from organic cotton, recycled fabrics, hemp, flax, and dissolving pulp from bamboo and eucalyptus plantations that are PEFC or FSC-certified. 
2. Use wood pulp from PEFC and FSC-certified plantations, and produce the fabric with lyocell process. Communicate the difference between the viscose and lyocell processes to consumers on your website and hangtags. 
3. Encouraging handwashing on the hangtag and labeling/POS would influence the consumer to take an active role in reducing environmental impacts of viscose at the consumer washing stage.
==Sources==
# https://www.swicofil.com/products/200viscose.html
# https://www.canopy.org/index.php
# oecotextiles.wordpress.com/2009/08/19/348/
# https://www.eksoy.com/PDF/VISCOSE%20AND%20BAMBOO.pdf
# textilefashionstudy.com/process-flow-chart-of-viscose-fabric-dyeing/
# textilelearner.blogspot.com/2012/09/100-viscose-fabric-dyeing-method-dyeing.html
# ftc.gov/opa/2009/08/bamboo.shtm
# lenzinginnovation.lenzing.com/fileadmin/template/pdf/Texworld_USA_2012/16_01_2012_2_PM_Lenzing_Edelweiss.pdf
# https://www.lenzing.com/sites/botanicprinciples/website/index.htm
# https://www.OEKO-TEK.com/media/downloads/Factsheet_OETS_100_EN.pdf

Bamboo viscose

2015-04-24T08:53:01Z

MichaelaRudolph:

Viscose made from bamboo is categorized as a “manufactured” or “man-made” fibre created from cellulose found in the bamboo plant. It is derived from bamboo, which is then chemically processed and regenerated to form a new polymer using the viscose process.

== Benefits ==
Bamboo is a “rapidly renewable” resource, meaning that it grows quickly and can be harvested at least once a year.

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%"
|+ FAST-GROWING RENEWABLE FIBRES
! FIBER
! LENGTH
! TIMING
|-
| [[Bamboo]]
| 24 meters
| 40 days [1]
|-
| [[Jute]]
| 1-4 meters
| 3-4 months[2]
|-
| [[Hemp]]
| 4 meters
| 3 months [3]
|-
| [[Flax]]
| 1 meters [4]
| 3-4 months [5]
|}

Bamboo is a biologically efficient, low maintenance crop that requires few chemical inputs during the growing season. It is mainly rain fed, and can grow in diverse climates. 
Due to its speedy growth and little input needed for growing, some say that using bamboo as an alternative to slower growing wood trees could help slow deforestation.[1] 
Viscose from bamboo drapes well, is easy to dye, and is highly absorbent. It is a good conductor of heat, so it is a cool, comfortable fibre good for use in warm weather. Viscose made from bamboo is priced for its softness and comfort.

== Potential impacts ==
===Cultivation===
Some species of bamboo are highly invasive, meaning they take over natural vegetation.
===Processing===
To transform plant-derived materials into silky fabric, the cellulose must be separated from other compounds found in bamboo. Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and sodium sulfide are commonly used to remove the lignin that binds the plant fibres together, and in some cases bleach is required to whiten the pulp. In a complex process, the pulp is steeped in caustic soda to produce alkali cellulose, which is then aged or oxidized before reacting with carbon disulfide to create sodium cellulose xanthate. This xanthate is dissolved in caustic soda to form a syrup-like spinning solution or “viscose,” which can then be extruded through a spinneret to form viscose fibres.[6]

The viscose manufacturing process is chemically intensive and requires copious amounts of water. Wastewater effluents from processing must be properly treated to avoid contamination of surrounding water bodies. Air emissions caused by the viscose process include sulfur, nitrous oxides, carbon disulfide and hydrogen disulfide. Chronic exposure to carbon disulfide can cause damage to the nervous system in humans.[6]

{| class="wikitable"
|+PROCESS FOR VISCOSE MADE FROM BAMBOO
|-
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:150px;color:#ffffff" |

[[File:Viscose made from bamboo.jpg|225]]
|}
===Dyeing and finishing===
The dyeing processes for viscose made from bamboo is a multi-step process that involves ample amounts of water at high temperatures (50°-95°C), salt, acetic acid and caustic soda. Mild peroxide bleach may also be necessary to remove residues of sulphur.
===Consumer care/washing===
Viscose made from bamboo is typically dry-clean only, due to delicacy of the fabric when wet. Some types of viscose can be machine or handwashed.[7], [8], [9]
===End of use===
Viscose made from bamboo products are non-biodegradable because they can not beak down within a reasonably short time after disposal into a landfill.[10]
==Optimize sustainability benefits==
• Know the difference between linen made from bamboo and viscose made from bamboo. Viscose made from bamboo employs a chemically intensive process and has high environmental and social impacts due to emissions to air and water during processing. 
• Encourage suppliers to use raw materials sourced from Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification schemes (PEFC) and
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certified plantations. 
• Investigate viscose processing methods that use enzymes instead of chemicals. 
• New forms of viscose-type materials are emerging, and can be made through various types of processes including lyocell. Lyocell fibre production is similar to that of generic viscose in that bamboo material is dissolved through an intensive chemical process into a pulp, which is then extruded to form fibres. However, for lyocell, the solvent used to transform the pulp into fibre is amine oxide (NMMO=N-Methyl-Morpholine-N-Oxide), which is considered non-toxic. The lyocell fibre manufacturing process also operates as a closed loop system, in which 99% of the solvent is recovered, filtered and reused. Any remaining emissions are broken down harmlessly in biological wastewater treatment plants.[11]

==Availability==
Few suppliers are currently offering viscose made from bamboo from PEFC and FSC certified plantations. Expressing interest in PEFC and FSC certification can influence the supplier’s raw material sourcing strategy and lead to greater availability of responsibly sourced feedstock for viscose made from bamboo fabric.
Texplan, a Spanish company, is working with suppliers in China to produced lyocell fibre made from bamboo that is also FSC certified.[12]
Litrax, a Swiss company, has developed a process that uses enzymes instead of chemicals for processing bamboo into viscose.[13]
==Application==
Viscose made from bamboo and lyocell made from bamboo fabrics can be used in a variety of textile woven and knitted applications. Depending on the weight and construction of the cloth, these fabrics may be suitable for shirts, skirts, dresses, evening gowns, home furnishings and bedding.
==Marketing opportunities==
'''viscose''' Bamboo is being marketed strongly as an eco-friendly fibre. While the raw material is a rapidly renewable natural resource, viscose made from bamboo fabric employs a highly pollutive process in its manufacture. The European Commission has issued a directive on textile names, 2008/121/EC. This directive states how textile products should be marketed and sold in the EU. The name “bamboo” does not appear in this directive; therefore, it cannot be used for the purposes of compulsory description of fibre composition. The name “viscose” is included in this directive and should be used to describe the fibres corresponding to the definition: “regenerated cellulose fibre obtained by the viscose process for filament and discontinuous fibre.” This includes viscose made from bamboo fibres. This should be done consistently on labeling, hangtags and POS.[14] 
'''bamboo lyocell''' If bamboo is processed with a lyocell process. 
'''bamboo from PEFC or FSC certified plantations''' If verified and accurate. 
'''fast-growing natural resource''' 
'''low water footprint in cultivation''' 
NOTE: Other companies are claiming that bamboo is a natural antibiotic. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in the U.S. notes that the chemical processing that bamboo needs to go through to make viscose eliminates any of the plant’s antimicrobial properties.[5]
==Innovation opportunities==
1. Shift to existing environmentally beneficial fabrics when possible. These fabrics include fabric derived from organic cotton, recycled fabrics, hemp, flax, and dissolving pulp from bamboo and eucalyptus plantations that are PEFC and FSC certified. 

2. Use bamboo from PEFC and FSC certified plantations, and produce the fabric with lyocell process. Communicate the difference between the viscose and lyocell processes to consumers on your website and hangtags. 

3. Encouraging handwashing on the hangtag and labeling/POS would influence the consumer to take an active role in reducing environmental impacts of viscose at the consumer washing stage. 

4. Get your product Cradle to Cradle Certified. The Cradle to Cradle CertifiedTM Product Standard is a multi-attribute, continuous improvement methodology that provides a path to manufacturing healthy and sustainable products. The Standard rewards achievement in five categories and at five levels of certification. An accredited assessor will help to assess and optimize your product.
==Sources==
# https://www.voanews.com/content/a-13-2006-08-29-voa51/323110.html
# https://www.fao.org/economic/futurefibres/fibres/jute/en/
# https://www.hempage.de/cms/
# https://www.swicofil.com/products/003flax.html
# https://www.decktowel.com/pages/how-linen-is-made-from-flax-to-fabric
# oecotextiles.wordpress.com/2009/08/19/348/
# https://www.eksoy.com/PDF/VISCOSE%20AND%20BAMBOO.pdf
# textilefashionstudy.com/process-flow-chart-of-viscose-fabric-dyeing/
# textilelearner.blogspot.com/2012/09/100-viscose-fabric-dyeing-method-dyeing.html
# ftc.gov/opa/2009/08/bamboo.shtm
# lenzing.com/sites/botanicprinciples/website/index.htm
# https://www.nepcon.net/3668/English/HOME/News_2010/November/Dress_yourself_up_in_FSC_Bamboo/
# https://www.litrax.com/fibres-natural-l1.html
# eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:019:0029:0048:EN:PDF
# eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:019:0029:0048:EN:PDF
# business.ftc.gov/documents/alt172-how-avoid-bamboozling-your-customers

Polypropylene

2015-04-17T11:30:56Z

MichaelaRudolph: Created page with "The main environmental consideration—along with all other synthetics in this category—is that this material, whether in fibre form or other, is non-biodegradable and inten..."

The main environmental consideration—along with all other synthetics in this category—is that this material, whether in fibre form or other, is non-biodegradable and intended for short-term usage. Global polypropylene usage is at 2.6 million tonnes, and efforts to address sustainability innovations could make a significant impact on the industry and the planet.[1] Polypropylene (PP) is a long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by weight of ethylene, propylene or other olefin units. Polypropylene is a manufactured and man made polyolefin fibre and used in a number diverse applications ranging from carpet to technical and outdoor apparel to geotextiles and product packaging.

== Benefits ==
Polypropylene’s characteristics have been perfected over the years since it was originally developed in the 1950s. It has excellent durability, strength and resiliency while still being lightweight. Polypropylene has good resistance to ultraviolet degradation, stains and spilling, and excellent wicking action—which make this material great for carpets.[2] These features also eliminate the need for water and stain-repellent finishes.
Polypropylene’s natural buoyancy also makes it perfect for high performance apparel such as wetsuits and swimsuits.
Polypropylene blends well with other fibres, and when used capitalizes on its excellent wicking properties.[2]
No dyeing is necessary—which means no pollution from dyeing— since colours are incorporated during the fibre-forming stage.[3]
Its low softening point encourages consumers to launder their products in low temperature washing and ironing, thereby minimizing water and energy use associated with consumer care and washing.[4]

== Potential impacts ==
===Processing===
Typical of synthetic fibres, production for polypropylene varies amongst manufacturers. Individual manufacturers have variations in their processes to achieve certain properties such as dyeability, light stability and heat sensitivity.[5]
The manufacturing process for polypropylene requires non-renewable resources and high water and energy use.[6][7][8]
Fuel released by vehicles used to transport oil and waste causes pollution and CO2 emissions. [9]

===End of use===
Polypropylene’s most substantial environmental impact is at its End of Use stage. Polypropylene is non-biodegradable, and polypropylene products increase load on landfills and end up in oceans and large bodies of water, where they can harm aquatic species and potentially end up back in our food and water. According to a study done by Mark Browne, an ecologist at University College Dublin, microscopic fragments of acrylic, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide and polyester have been discovered in increasing quantities across the northeast Atlantic, as well as on beaches in Britain, Singapore and India.[10][11]

== Alternatives to virgin polypropylene ==
=== Recycled polypropylene ===
Using recycled polypropylene achieves two main ecological benefits: 1) it slows the depletion of virgin natural resources, and 2) it reduces textile waste building in landfills. Polypropylene can be recycled into new versions of the same product or into entirely different products.
Post-consumer waste from used and discarded products and post-industrial waste from material collected during the product manufacturing can be recycled.

=== Mechanical recycling ===
Polypropylene can be effectively collected, cleaned, cut, re-melted and remolded. However, the material is “downcycled” in this manner, which means that its physical structure breaks down, and eventually the product must be discarded to landfill. Infrastructure for collection, sorting and purifying must be in place.
Note: recycled polypropylene still uses significant amounts of energy throughout the production process.

==Availability==
Recycled polypropylene is available from suppliers in Europe and China.
Bio-derived polypropylene is currently an advancing technology and is not readily available.

== Applications ==
Recycled polypropylene is available from suppliers in Europe and China.
Bio-derived polypropylene is currently an advancing technology and is not readily available.

==Optimize sustainability benefits==
• Promote the use of recycled polypropylene.

• Promote the research of bio-derived polypropylene. Bio-derived polypropylene is derived from renewable resources, such as sugar cane. Bio-plastics have a lower carbon footprint, and some are recyclable and compostable. There is no guarantee that they are manufactured with less harmful chemicals or contain fewer toxic additives. Also, plants used for bio-plastic feedstock can be grown without fertilizers and
pesticides.[12][13][14]

• Promote OEKO-TEK certified polypropylene.[15] OEKO-TEK is an independent, third party certifier that offers two certifications for textiles: OEKO-TEK 100 (for products) and OEKO-TEK 1000 (for production sites/factories). OEKO-TEK 100 label aims to ensure that products pose no risk to health. OEKO-TEK certified products do not contain allergenic dye-stuffs and dye-stuffs that form carcinogenic aryl-amines. The certification process includes thorough testing for a long list of chemicals. Specifically banned are: AZO dyes, carcinogenic and allergy-inducing dyes, pesticides, chlorinated phenols, extractable heavy metals, emissions of volatile components, and more.

==Marketing opportunities==
'''X% Recycled Content''' Regulations require stating percent recycled if not 100% recycled content.

'''XX% bio-based''' If verified and used.

==Innovation opportunities==
1. At the product design stage, consider what will happen to a polypropylene product at the End of Use stage of the lifecycle. Design products that address longevity, recyclability, biodegradability, disassembly for reuse, etc.

2. Work with partners to develop closed loop recycling of polypropylene products and infrastructure to collect and sort.

3. Look to suitable fibre alternatives for polypropylene that have more advanced technology and infrastructure for recycling and biodegradability, such as polyester and polylactide (PLA).

4. Work with suppliers to advance technology for bio-based plastics from organic feedstock.

5. Design polypropylene products with reuse in mind in order to optimize resources embodied in the product.

6. Get your product Cradle to Cradle Certified. The Cradle to Cradle CertifiedTM Product Standard is a multi-attribute, continuous improvement methodology that provides a path to manufacturing healthy and sustainable products. The Standard rewards achievement in five categories and at five levels of certification. An accredited assessor will help to assess and optimize your product.

==Sources==
# Oerlikon. (2010) The Fibre Year 2009/2010. A World Survey on Textile and nonwovens Industry. Retrieved from http://www.indotextiles.com/download/Fibre%20Year%202009_10.pdf
# Freinkel, Susan. PLASTIC A Toxic Love Story. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011.
# https://www.fabriclink.com/university/polyolefin.cfm
# https://www.engr.utk.edu/~mse/Textiles/Nylon%20fibres.htm
# Corbman, Dr. Bernard P. Textiles: Fibre to Fabric. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1975.
# https://www.plasticseurope.org/Documents/Document/20100312112214-FINAL_HDPE_280409-20081215-017-EN-v1.pdf
# EPA. (1991) Chapter 6: Organic Chemical Process Industry retrieved from:
# https://www.epa.gov/ttnchie1/ap42/ch06/
# https://www.tech.plym.ac.uk/sme/mats324/mats324A9%20NFETE.htm
# https://www.epa.gov/climatechange/wycd/waste/downloads/plastics-chapter10-28-10.pdf
# https://www.ecouterre.com/is-synthetic-clothing-causing-microplastic-pollution-in-oceans-worldwide/
# The Textile Dyer, “Concern over Recycled Polyester,” May 13, 2008.
# https://www.prweb.com/releases/2012/2/prweb9194258.htm
# biopol.free.fr/index.php/to-make-green-polypropylene-from-sugarcane/
# news.discovery.com/earth/plants/bioplastic-plant-plastic-environment.htm
# https://www.OEKO-TEK.com/media/downloads/Factsheet_OETS_100_EN.pdf

Polyethylene

2015-04-17T09:00:45Z

MichaelaRudolph: /* Benefits */

The main consideration with polyethylene is that it’s non-biodegradable and can be toxic to marine life. Efforts to look at strategies to decrease overall consumption could influence the environmental impact that polyethylene has on the world around us. Polyethylene (PE) is a synthetic, manufactured plastic that is the most commonly used polymer in the world. It constitutes about one third of all plastics produced worldwide, and its applications are mainly bags, packaging and industrial uses.
== Benefits ==
Polyethylene is tough, flexible, lightweight (some are featherweight), waterproof and easy to process.
There are three main types of polyethylene, including low-density polyethylene (LDPE), linear-low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE).

Products in these categories include diverse applications: bags for newspapers, dry-cleaning, frozen foods; sandwich bags; shrink-wrap; squeezable bottles; coatings on milk cartons and hot and cold beverage cups; lids; toys; flexible tubing; plastic grocery bags; retail shopping bags, milk jugs; juice, detergent and household cleaner bottles; safety protective clothing; and apparel/product bags for shipping.

Polyethylene is inexpensive. It costs less than a penny to manufacture 140 grams, and .06 to .13 SEK for a plastic bag.[1]

== Potential impacts ==

===Processing===
The manufacturing process for conventional (petrochemical) polyethylene requires non-renewable resources and high water use. For the production of 1 kg of high-density polyethylene (HDPE), for example, 1.5 kg of fossils fuels are required, and over 3 kg of water.1
Fuel released by vehicles used to transport oil and waste causes pollution and CO2 emissions.[2]

===End of use===
Polyethylene’s most substantial environmental impact is at its end of use stage. Despite its durability (plastic bags can hold more than 100 times their weight), polyethylene was not designed for longevity, but for immediate throwaway.
Carbon dioxide emissions are released when high-density polyethylene is incinerated. This could happen in countries that do not have access to more sophisticated disposal, recycling and waste-to-energy methods.[3]

== Alternatives to virgin polyethylene ==
=== Recycled polyethylene ===
Using recycled polyethylene achieves two main ecological benefits: 1) it slows the depletion of virgin natural resources, and 2) it reduces textile waste building in landfills. Polyethylene can be recycled into new versions of the same product or into entirely different products.
Post-consumer waste from used and discarded products and post-industrial waste from material collected during the product manufacturing can be recycled.

=== Mechanical recycling ===
Polyethylene can be effectively collected, cleaned, cut, re-melted and remolded. However, the material is “downcycled” in this manner, which means that its physical structure breaks down, and eventually the product must be discarded to landfill.4 infrastructure for collection, sorting and purifying must be in place.

==Optimize sustainability benefits==
• Encourage the use of bio-derived polyethylene. Bio-derived
polyethylene is derived from renewable resources, such as sugar cane. Bio-plastics have a lower carbon footprint, and some are recyclable and compostable. There is no guarantee that they are manufactured with less harmful chemicals or contain less toxic additives.

• Encourage the use of recycled polyethylene.

==Availability==
Recycled polyethylene is readily available globally.
== Application ==
(For fashion and textile industry)
Apparel shipping bags, shopping bags.

==Marketing opportunities==
'''X% Recycled Content''' Regulations require stating percent recycled if not 100% recycled content.
'''XX% bio-based''' If verified and used.

==Innovation opportunities==
1. Instead of “throwaway living,” develop ways to reuse polyethylene for garment shipping of apparel and products to stores.

2. Investigate alternative fibres to replace polyethylene bags for garment product shipping. Look for innovations beyond replacing polyethylene bags with cotton or polyester bags with messages such as “not a plastic bag.”

3. Create internal store collections of polyethylene bags. Redistribute bags to consumers.

4. Work with partners to develop closed loop recycling of polyethylene and infrastructure to collect and sort.

5. Increase awareness and participation of the public, and find simple, acceptable alternatives to polyethylene bag use.

6. Reward customers for reusing bags. Eye-catching signs raise awareness and encourage people to reuse bags.

7. Develop a 100% compostable shopping bag that biodegrades in less than 2 months.

8. Design polyethylene products with reuse in mind in order to optimize resources embodied in the product.

9. Work with suppliers to advance technology for bio-based plastics from organic feedstock.

10. Stop giving customers shopping bags to encourage them to bring their own.

==Sources==
# https://www.plasticseurope.org/Documents/Document/20100312112214-FINAL_HDPE_280409-20081215-017-EN-v1.pdf
# https://www.epa.gov/climatechange/wycd/waste/downloads/plastics-chapter10-28-10.pdf
# https://www.naturalfibres2009.org/en/iynf/sustainable.html
# The Textile Dyer, “Concern over Recycled Polyester,” May 13, 2008.

Polyester & Recycled Polyester

2015-04-17T07:23:08Z

MichaelaRudolph: /* Biopolymer fibres */

Finding innovations that mitigate the ecological impacts of polyester will not only reduce environmental impacts, but has the potential to influence the textile industry as a whole. Over the last 45 years technical developments in polyester production have improved the fibre’s hand-feel, fineness and quality. Polyester is now the world’s favorite fibre, representing 79% [in 2009] of world synthetic fibre production, fuelled in part by its use in fast-fashion garments, the fastest growing sector of the fashion industry.[1][2][3] Europe’s share in the polyester industry accounted for 960,000 tonnes in 2009-2010. [1]
Polyester is a man-made, synthetic fibre. To produce polyester, crude oil (petroleum) is broken down into petrochemicals, which are then converted with heat and catalysts such as antimony into polyethylene terephthalate (PET). This is the same type of plastic used in plastic soda bottles.

== Benefits ==
Polyester fabrics are readily available, strong, resistant to stretching and shrinking, resistant to most chemicals, and don’t easily succumb to wrinkling, mildew or abrasion. So, when polyester fabrics are used in robustly constructed garments, they have the potential to last and to be worn many times, optimizing the embodied energy and resources in the garment. see comment in Potential Impacts below for counterpoint to this benefit.
Polyester’s positive attributes for clothing lie mostly in the consumer use phase of its lifecycle, which accounts for 50-80% of a polyester garment’s total ecological footprint. Polyester garments are generally washed in cold water and drip-dried, thereby minimizing water and energy use associated with garment care.[4]
In comparison to other synthetic fibres, there is currently more research and innovation when it comes to sustainability and improving polyester’s environmental impact.

==Manufacturing ==

PET is made from ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. From that polymer, fibers are made by a [[melt-spinning]] process, mostly in a continuous line with both the polymerization and melt spinning. The high speed at the [[spinning]] process requires the use of lubricants (spinning oils). They are commonly made of mineral oil with the addition of surfactants to facilitate the washing-out process when dyeing. In order to avoid that the fiber turns glassy (shiny) a matting agent in the form of titanium dioxide, or silicates are added, also optical brighteners are added. For the polymerization one needs small amounts of metal catalysts and at the end of polymerization one also needs a “catalyst-poison” in order to get the correct chain lengths.

== Potential impacts ==

===Processing===
Petroleum, the main ingredient in manufacturing polyester, is a non-renewable resource and mining for petroleum destroys natural habitats. That is to say that petroleum takes millions of years to form, and is currently being extracted from the earth for industrial uses faster than it can be replenished. The declining petroleum supply is the source of much debate—British Petroleum (BP) reports that there are 1,333 billion barrels still available to pump (enough for 40 years at current usage rates).[5] Other sources state that supply is overestimated and that reserves are about 30% lower than widely reported.[6]

The manufacturing process for polyester is fully chemical, energy intensive and releases greenhouse gasses into the environment.[7]
In the production of polyester, the main ingredients used are terephthalic acid (TA) or dimethyl terephthalate, which are reacted with ethylene glycol, based on bromide-controlled oxidation.[7] The production of polyester emits emissions to air and water, which include: heavy metal cobalt; manganese salts; sodium bromide; antimony oxide; and titanium dioxide.

Antimony is of particular concern, since it is a toxic heavy metal known to cause cancer under certain circumstances and is a suspected reproductive toxin.[7] The function of antimony in the production of polyester is as a catalyst in the oxidation process. But it is not absolutely necessary for polyester production, and alternate non-antimony catalysts are available.

Europe meets its oil consumption/needs by importing from foreign sources: 41% from the Russian Federation, 26% from Africa, 16% from the Middle East—14% comes from Europe—thus requiring transportation over long distances.[8][9] Fuel released by vehicles used to transport the oil causes pollution and CO2 emissions.

===Dyeing and finishing===
Certain types of dyes are suspected carcinogens and mutagens, while other dyes are known to have a sensitizing effect on skin and should be avoided. Untreated dye water can negatively impact receiving water bodies and harm aquatic ecosystems if left untreated before its release.

===Consumer care/washing===
Certain at-home detergents have been reported to have detrimental effects on humans and the environment, contributes to ozone depletion and can pollute wastewater.

===End of use===
Polyester has durability to last the wearer several years, however it is typically used in inexpensive, fast-fashion garments that are worn and quickly discarded. Synthetic fibres are from a carbon-based chemical feedstock and are considered non-biodegradable.[10]

There are conflicting opinions about how long polyester takes to decompose and estimates range from 40 years to 1000 years. This is because degradability is dependent upon a number of conditions including how much air, temperature and sunlight the fibre is exposed to.

Discarded polyester products increase load on landfills, contribute to water contamination and possibly toxic emissions into the air.[11] According to a study done by Mark Browne, an ecologist at University College Dublin, microscopic fragments of polyester, acrylic, polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyamide have been discovered in increasing quantities across the northeast Atlantic, as well as on beaches in Britain, Singapore and India. A chemical analysis revealed that nearly 80% of the filaments contained polyester or acrylic.[12]

== Alternatives to virgin polyester ==
=== Recycled polyester ===
Using recycled polyester achieves two main ecological benefits: 1) it slows the depletion of virgin natural resources, and 2) it reduces textile waste building in landfills. Polyester can be recycled into new versions of the same product or into entirely different products.
Post-consumer waste from used and discarded products and post-industrial waste from material collected during the product manufacturing can be recycled. There are two processes for recycling polyester: mechanical and chemical.

==== Mechanical recycling ====
Since polyester is a thermoplastic and is melt-spun, it can be effectively re-melted and remolded to make yarns. However, in this manner the fibre is “downcycled”: its physical structure breaks down, and eventually the product must be discarded to landfill.[13]

Collection, sorting and purifying discarded synthetic garments (i.e., post-consumer waste) is currently cumbersome. Infrastructure for labeling, collection and sorting needs to be improved so that the post-consumer raw material source can scale to be economically viable.

Polymer resins come in a variety of forms and some are relatively easy to collect and recycle. The most well known source is soda bottles, which can be used to make new PET (polyethylene terephthalate) fibre. The bottles are collected, sorted by colour (green vs. clear), thoroughly inspected to ensure that no caps (often polypropylene), bases or PVC bottles are present. (This is critical, because one stray PVC bottle in a melt of 10,000 PET bottles can ruin the entire batch of new fibre.) Following inspection, the bottles are sterilized, dried and crushed into flakes, which are washed again, bleached and dried. The flakes are then emptied into a vat, heated, melted and extruded through spinnerets, to form long polyester fibres. Flakes from green bottles are generally used for fibres that will be dyed in dark colours, though some companies take advantage of the green colour in the new fabric developed.

==== Chemical recycling ====
Chemical recycling involves breaking the polymer into its molecular parts and reforming the molecules into a yarn of equal strength and quality as the original, in perpetuity.[14] In this process, the chemical building blocks are separated (depolymerization) and reassembled (repolymerization), forming what is known as a “closed loop” where the final stage of the product lifecycle (disposal) forms the first stage of the next product (raw fibre). Closed loop recycled polyester processing is expensive in part because it is a relatively new technology. In addition, the infrastructure to label, collect, sort and purify discarded garments at scale is being developed.

In 2002, the Japanese company Teijin launched ECO CIRCLETM, the first closedloop chemical recycling system for polyester. Teijin works with fabric suppliers and apparel brands to manufacture products using recycled and recyclable materials, and is also helping to develop post-consumer clothing collection programs.

Teijin recently established a joint venture with one of China’s largest fibre producers, bringing the manufacture of chemically processed recycled polyester to China.[15]

{| class="wikitable"
|+MECHANICAL RECYCLING VS. CHEMICAL RECYCLING
|-
! style="background-color:#27408b;width:200px;color:#ffffff" | PROCESS
! style="background-color:#27408b;width:200px;color:#ffffff" | BENEFITS
! style="background-color:#27408b;width:300px;color:#ffffff" | CONSIDERATIONS
! style="background-color:#27408b;width:250px;color:#ffffff" | IMPACTS
|-
| '''Mechanical recycling'''
||• Slows the depletion of non-renewable resources

• Fewer CO2 emissions than virgin polyester

• Diverts textile waste from landfills
|| • Difficult to label, collect, sort and purify post-consumer garments on a large scale
• Some fabrics with chemical backing, lamination, finish or those used in complex blends with other synthetics (nylon, for example) are not physically recyclable.[14]

• Recycled polyester from PET bottles is particularly suited for use in fabric such as polar fleece, where the construction of the fabric hides slight yarn variations.[14]

• This process degrades the fibre and eventually the product is disposed of in the landfill.

• Beware: The demand for used PET bottles is now surpassing supply in some areas and reports indicate that some suppliers are buying new bottles to make polyester textile fibre that can be called recycled.[14]

|| • Since the base colour of recycled polyester chips varies, colour inconsistencies in the fabric may occur, and this can lead to the need for re-dyeing. Re-dyeing greatly increases levels of water, energy and chemicals used.[14]

• Whites can also be difficult to achieve in recycled fibres, and some processors use chlorine-based bleaches to whiten the base fabric. The dyeing and bleaching process for recycled fabrics involves standard industry chemicals.
|-
| '''Chemical recycling'''
|| • Slows depletion of non-renewable resources
• Generates fewer CO2 emissions than virgin polyester

• Diverts textile waste from landfills

• Creates a completely new yarn of equal strength and quality to virgin polyester, in perpetuity.
|| • Difficult to label, collect, sort and purify discarded polyester garments on a large scale.

• Some fabrics with chemical backing, lamination, finish or those used in complex blends with other synthetics are not chemically recyclable.[14]
|| • Uses significant amounts of energy.
|}

== Alternatives to virgin polyester ==
=== Biopolymer fibers ===
==== Polylactide (PLA) ====
Polylactide (PLA) is a renewable thermoplastic and a polymer. It is derived from the starch of plants such as corn, sugar cane and sugar beet. PLA is biodegradable, as it decays as a result of exposure to heat and moisture. It decomposes forming carbon dioxide and water, which present no danger to the environment.[16][17]

PLA’s ability to biodegrade comes as a result of its hydrolysis and low melting point. These features could hinder PLA’s ability to be suitable in some applications, such as the outdoors or fabric that needs to be ironed. However, efforts to address these drawbacks in PLA have recently been accomplished. NatureWorks LLC, which offers a brand name of PLA called Ingeo, has developed hydrolytic stabilizers that can be implemented in certain applications to prevent degradation outdoors. The company is currently working to increase the melting point of PLA so that it can be ironed.[18]

==Optimize sustainability benefits==
* Promote the use of recycled polyester that has been recycled using a chemical process.

* Promote the use of mechanically recycled polyesters from producers that use high quality raw materials.

* Promote the use of antimony-free polyester.

* Promote the use of polylactide (PLA).

* If using recycled polyester from PET bottles, ensure that the supplier is using recycled bottles, rather than new ones.[15]

* Promote the use of low-impact dye and bleaching processes.

* Promote the use of OEKO-TEK certified polyester.[19] OEKO-TEK is an independent, third party certifier that offers two certifications for textiles: OEKO-TEK 100 (for products) and OEKO-TEK 1000 (for production sites/factories). OEKO-TEK 100 label aims to ensure that products pose no risk to health. OEKO-TEK certified products do not contain allergenic dye-stuffs and dye stuffs that form carcinogenic aryl-amines. The certification process includes thorough testing for a long list of chemicals. Specifically banned are: AZO dyes, carcinogenic and allergy-inducing dyes, pesticides, chlorinated phenols, extractable heavy metals, emissions of volatile components, and more.

==Availability==
Due in part to the volume of discarded soda bottles, mechanically recycled polyester is readily available to textile and apparel suppliers.

Companies such as Freudenberg Politex in Italy, and REPREVE® and Poole Company in the United States are producing versions of mechanically recycled polyester that are of almost equal quality to virgin polyester because of the high quality of raw materials used.

Chemically recycled polyester is gaining in popularity and the number of companies offering fabrics made from this technology is increasing globally. The Japanese company Teijin which first developed chemical recycling technology, recently established a joint venture to establish fabric manufacturing in China.

Eco Intelligent™, antimony-free polyester, is available through Victor Group in North America. Antimony free tititanium-based catalysts are available from Johnson Matthey's catalyst Vertec and Teijin's "heavy metal free" polyester chip.[20][21]

Polylactide (PLA) is still a developing technology. NatureWorks LLC makes Ingeo, a PLA.

== Applications==
Chemically recycled polyester fibres maintain the same quality as virgin polyester fibres in perpetuity.

Mechanically recycled polyester fibres can be of almost equal quality to virgin polyester, depending on the quality of raw materials. Some producers use low quality materials which result in low quality fibre.

Mechanically recycled polyester fibres can be blended with other fibres to maintain strength and quality for applications in a variety of fabric constructions—activewear, intimates, outdoor wear, T-shirts, trousers, etc.

Polylactide (PLA) is still a developing technology, and currently can be used for applications of bedding and apparel.

==Marketing opportunities==
'''x% recycled content''' Regulations require stating percent recycled if not 100% recycled content. In some cases where recycled polyester affects the aesthetic of the garment, craft marketing messages to turn potential negatives into positives. 
'''antimony-free''' If non-antimony polyester is used. 
'''alternative dyes''' If used. 
'''made from renewable source''' If PLA is used.

==Innovation opportunities==
1. Although creating different blends of recycled polyester with recycled cotton, organic cotton, etc., is good in the short term, know that these blends make it difficult to recycle at End of Use stage, and create liabilities and waste. When designing fibre blends, consider what happens after End of Use.

2. Design garments and products with reusable elements and for easy disassembly. Design the product so that trims, tags, buttons, etc. can be easily separated from the main body of the product at the end of its useful life, to enable easy in-house recycling. Create collection systems for the products. Collect, disassemble, reuse.

3. Look for cross-sector marketing opportunities. For example, partner with a soft drinks brand to use their PET bottles in fabrics, or partner with garment collection charity to establish a long term collection facility where customers can drop their closed loop recyclable polyester garments.

4. Investigate alternative technologies for colouring polyester fabrics, such as AirDye, which eliminates water from the dyeing process.[17] Explore unique aesthetics achieved from using this process.

5. Design garments that are 100% polyester, including trims, so garments can be chemically recycled easily at the end of use.

6. Design products so that non-polyester trims can be easily separated from the main body of the product at the end use, to enable easy polyester recycling.

7. Design 100% degradable garments that are made from 100% PLA and work directly with the fibre-producing company to ensure performance and proper application. Create in-store take-back program for customers and partner with a local compost facility to ensure optimum conditions for garment to degrade properly.

8. Get your product Cradle to Cradle Certified. The Cradle to Cradle CertifiedTM Product Standard is a multi-attribute, continuous improvement methodology that provides a path to manufacturing healthy and sustainable products. The Standard rewards achievement in five categories and at five levels of certification. An accredited assessor will help to assess and optimize your product.

==Sources==
# https://www.indotextiles.com/download/Fibre%20Year%202009_10.pdf
# https://www.swicofil.com/pes.html
# https://www.nyfashioncenterfabrics.com/polyester-fabric-info.html
# https://www.ecouterre.com/could-polyester-be-the-next-eco-friendly-fabric/
# makewealthhistory.org/2010/06/11/how-much-oil-is-there-left-really/
# https://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/jun/09/sir-david-king-dwindling-oil-supplies
# Athleta Webinar: “Textile Fibres & Sustainability.” Charlene Ducas. October 29, 2012
# “Monthly and cumulated Crude Oil Imports (volumes and prices) by EU and non EU country,” 2012.
# ec.europa.eu/energy/observatory/oil/import_export_en.htm
# Grose, Lynda and Kate Fletcher. Fashion & Sustainability: Design for Change. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd, 2012.
# https://www.epa.gov/ttnchie1/le/acrylon.pdf
# https://www.ecouterre.com/is-synthetic-clothing-causing-microplastic-pollution-in-oceans-worldwide/
# The Textile Dyer, “Concern over Recycled Polyester,” May 13, 2008,
# oecotextiles.wordpress.com/2009/07/14/why-is-recycled-polyester-considered-a-sustainable-textile/#_ftn6
# https://www.teijin.co.jp/english/news/2012/ebd120809.html
# textileexchange.org/sites/default/files/eco_fibre.pdf
# https://www.technologystudent.com/joints/pla1.html
# Boh, Richard. Personal Interview. 25 February 2014.
# https://www.OEKO-TEK.com/media/downloads/Factsheet_OETS_100_EN.pdf
# http://www.teijin.com/products/chemicals/hmf.html
# http://www.jmcatalysts.com/pct/news2.asp?newsid=65

Imitation leather

2015-04-02T08:43:37Z

MichaelaRudolph:

There are several types of alternatives to genuine leather. The more popular materials, including thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), polyurethane laminate (PUL) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), are often used for jackets, handbags, shoes and upholstery, and were developed as inexpensive alternatives to leather. These materials are man-made synthetic products.[1]

[[File:Imitation leather.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Imitation leather]]

== Benefits and potential impacts ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="background-color:#00008b;width:100px;color:#ffffff" |
! style="background-color:#00008b;width:200px;color:#ffffff" | DESCRIPTIONS
! style="background-color:#00008b;width:200px;color:#ffffff" | BENEFITS
! style="background-color:#00008b;width:400px;color:#ffffff"| IMPACTS
|-
| '''Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU)''' ||Heat bonding lamination process where no solvents are necessary. Two types of TPU are common: polyester based and polyether based. ||• Can be waterproof and weigh less than genuine leather. • Can be constantly reused, which is why it’s often used for disposable diapers. • Could be considered “animal friendly” since it is not derived from the hide of a cow. • These products have the visual aesthetics of genuine leather, but at substantially less cost. ||• Less durable than genuine leather. • The base material used to form polyurethane compounds is a by-product of the oil refining process. • Almost all commercial grade polyurethanes available are based on two different isocyanates: TDI (toluene diisocyanate) and MDI (methylene bisdiphenyl diisocyanate). • TDI is considered a volatile organic compound (VOC) and has acute and chronic effects on humans.[2] • Not biodegradable. • Not recyclable.
|-
| '''Polyurethane laminate (PUL)''' ||A polyurethane coating is laminated onto fabrics such as polyester or cotton, and uses solvents in a chemical bonding process. ||• Durable, waterproof, flexible. • Can be constantly reused. • These products have the visual aesthetics of genuine leather, but at substantially less cost. • Could be considered “animal friendly” since it is not derived from the hide of a cow. || Impacts are the same as TPU above.
|-
| '''Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)''' || || • Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a versatile plastic that can take on a variety of characteristics—rigid, filmy, flexible and leathery—with relatively limitless applications. • Could be considered “animal friendly” since it is not derived from the hide of a cow. • These products have the visual aesthetics of genuine leather, but at substantially less cost. || • Less durable than genuine leather. • Dioxin (the most potent carcinogen known), ethylene dichloride and vinyl chloride are emitted during the production of PVC and can cause acute and chronic health problems, including cancer, endocrine disruption, and reproductive and immune system damage.[2,3] • Chemical stabilizers are necessary in the creation of PVC, including lead, cadmium and organotins. Phthalates are used to soften PVC. Certain phthalates have been banned in the European Union, such as DEHP, BBP and DBP, and are known to cause acute and chronic health problems, and are possible carcinogens.[4,5] • During use, dioxins and phthalates can leach, flake or outgas from PVC over time, again emitting dioxin and heavy metals into the air, water and land. • Fibre is less breathable than polyurethane. • Not biodegradable.
|}

==Other substitutes to genuine leather==
===Pu split leather===
Pu split leather, also known as “pu split,” comes from the same hide as 100% genuine leather. The hide is prepared and tanned. Since the hide is too thick to use on its own, it is split into layers: the top layer is of the highest quality, and is considered pure leather. The lower layer, called “split,” is also considered 100% genuine leather and looks like suede. For the processing of pu split leather, the tanner applies a thin layer of polyurethane (pu) with foil or extrusion that hardens on top. A hair cell pattern can be embossed on the pu layer so that it looks like genuine leather. Pu coated split leather is not considered 100% leather.
===Bonded leather===
Bonded leather also comes from the same hide as 100% genuine leather. The hide is prepared and tanned. Small pieces of leather that are cut away from the final usable piece are combined with composite materials and spread out in sheets. Foil is put on top to resemble the top layer of leather. Bonded leather is to 100% genuine leather as particle board is to wood. Bonded leather is not considered 100% leather.

==Optimize sustainability benefits==
• Promote suppliers who use alternatives to PVC.

• Promote suppliers who use water-based solvents for Polyurethane laminate (PUL).

• Investigate “vegan leathers” made out of polyester or polyamide microfibre, which could allow them to be recyclable.

• Consider using 100% genuine leather that utilizes low-chrome tanning, non-chrome tanning or vegetable tanning processes.

==Availability==
Vegetable, low- or -no-chrome tanned leather is readily available.
Water-based solvents for PUL are currently being researched.
Microfibre made out of synthetics, such as polyester, are readily available.

==Application==
Chrome tanning still provides the softest quality leather most suitable for high end clothing. Vegetable tanned leather is applicable to bags, belts and some shoes. Bonded leather is applicable for belts, shoe soles and furniture upholstery, though it could be creatively applied to bags. Microfibre for leather substitutes made out of polyester is applicable for shoes, handbags and upholstery. Microfibres for leather substitutes made out of 100% chemically recycled polyester is available through Toray in the United States.[7]

==Marketing opportunities==
'''vegetable tanned leather or “naturally tanned” leather''' If vegetable or naturally tanned. '''post-consumer recycled leather''' If from used garments. '''100% recyclable''' If polyester or polyamide microfibre is used, and infrastructure to collect products and garments is in place. NOTE: Simply saying “vegan leather” is not enough to substantiate sustainability claims, since these processes are generally derived from petroleum and can be toxic.

==Innovation opportunities==
1. At the product design stage, consider what will happen to imitation leather products at the End of Use stage of the lifecycle. Design products that address longevity, recyclability, biodegradability, disassembly for reuse, etc.
 2. Explore innovative imitation leather fabrications that specifically address toxicity during production and use.
 3. Work with partners to develop closed loop recycling of imitation leather products.
 4. Design completely recyclable products where all materials and component parts recycle fully and safely. Partner with textile recycling facilities to guarantee effectiveness of recycling ability. Set up infrastructure to collect products. Communicate the proper route of disposal to consumers through POS and hangtags.
 5. Use recycled leather collected from tanneries to create modular accessories or patchwork pieces; or use in trims on garments.

==Sources==
# http://www.advleather.com/bicast.html
# http://www.mnn.com/family/family-activities/blogs/eu-bans-toxic-phthalates-and-other-chemicals
# http://www.healthychild.org/easy-steps/avoid-phthalates-find-phthalate-free-products-instead%E2%80%A8%E2%80%A8/
# http://www.www.mnn.com/family/family-activities/blogs/eu-bans-toxic-phthalates-and-other-chemicals
# http://www.healthychild.org/easy-steps/avoid-phthalates-find-phthalate-free-products-instead%E2%80%A8%E2%80%A8/
# http://www.healthybuilding.net/pvc/facts.html
# http://www.ultrasuede.com/about/responsibly_engineered.html

Elastane

2015-04-02T07:53:07Z

MichaelaRudolph: Created page with "The manufacturing process of elastane is highly chemical and is derived from petroleum, a non-renewable resource. Elastane is non-biodegradable, and will impede the biodegrada..."

The manufacturing process of elastane is highly chemical and is derived from petroleum, a non-renewable resource. Elastane is non-biodegradable, and will impede the biodegradability of any natural fibre it is blended with. Efforts to address sustainability in these areas could help the overall positive influence of elastane on the environment.
Elastane—also known as spandex—is the generic name for the synthetic, manufactured fibre whose fibre-forming substance is a long chain synthetic polymer. It comprises of at least 85% of segmented polyurethane. Some trade names for these fibres include LYCRA® (DuPont) and
DORLOSTAN® (Bayer).[1]
When used as the central filament core yarn with staple fibres such as cotton, elastane becomes the silent hero in the consumer use stage as it can prolong the life of a product by helping it retain its shape.

== Benefits ==
Elastane was developed as an alternative to traditional natural fibres, since it can stretch and snap back to its original form, whereas natural fibres cannot.
The environmental benefits of elastane occur in the consumer use phase. Elastane can be stretched repeatedly—up to 500% of its length—and will return back to its original size. It is lightweight, soft, smooth and does not restrict movement. It can be easily dyed and is resistant to abrasion, body oils and perspiration.

What makes elastane special is its compatibility with other fibres or yarns. Elastane fibres are included in textile applications where high elastic extension and recovery are needed for the material produced—such as stretch denim, activewear and underwear.[2] This allows for less stress on seams, and helps prevent garments from becoming loose-fitting in high stress areas such as the elbows or knees. This feature about elastane can assist with prolonging the life of the product and diverting waste from landfills.[3] When used as the central filament core yarn with staple fibres such as cotton, elastane becomes the silent hero in the consumer use stage as it can prolong the life of a product by helping it retain its shape.

Elastane can be machine washable and drip-dried, depending on the other fibres it is combined with, thereby minimizing water and energy use associated with consumer care and washing.

== Potential impacts ==
===Processing===
All elastane fibres are segmented polyurethane and formed through spinnerets either by melt extrusion or by solvent spinning.[4] Polyurethane is a byproduct of petroleum, which is a non-renewable resource. Petroleum takes millions of years to form, and is currently being extracted from the earth for industrial uses faster than it can be replenished. The declining petroleum supply is the source of much debate—British Petroleum (BP) reports that there are 1,333 billion barrels still available to pump (enough for 40 years at current usage rates).[5] Other sources state that supply is overestimated and that reserves are about 30% lower than widely reported.[6]
Many common solvents used for elastane production are toxic. Solvents such as dimethylformamide (DMF) are a potent liver toxin and research points to a possible association with cancer.[7]
The production of elastane emits hazardous pollutants to air, which include: toluene and 2,4-toluene diisocyanate (TDI).[8] Toluene is found in gasoline, acrylic paints, varnishes, lacquers, paint thinners, adhesives, glues, rubber cement, airplane glue and shoe polish. Although not characterized as a carcinogen, chronic inhalation exposure to toluene and 2,4-toluene diisocyanate in workers has caused significant decreases in lung function, and an asthma-like reaction.[9] Toluene levels of 500 ppm are considered immediately dangerous to life and health.[10]

===Dyeing and finishing===
Certain types of dyes are suspected carcinogens and mutagens, while other dyes are known to have a sensitizing effect on skin and should be avoided. Untreated dye water can negatively impact receiving water bodies and harm aquatic ecosystems if left untreated before its release.

===End of use===
Elastane is used in a variety of different garments at different price points. It has durability to last the wearer several years; however, it is often used in inexpensive, fast-fashion garments that are worn and quickly discarded. Synthetic fibres are from a petroleum-based feedstock and are considered non-biodegradable.[11]
Since elastane is often combined with biodegradable natural fibres, it can greatly influence the biodegradability of these fibres. For example, if even only 2% of elastane is combined with 98% cotton, it can cause the garment to be non-biodegradable.

==Optimize sustainability benefits==
===OEKO-TEK certified elastane===
OEKO-TEK is an independent, third party certifier that offers two certifications for textiles: OEKO-TEK 100 (for products) and OEKO-TEK 1000 (for production sites/factories). OEKO-TEK 100 label aims to ensure that products pose no risk to health. OEKO-TEK certified products do not contain allergenic dye-stuffs and dye-stuffs that form carcinogenic aryl-amines. The certification process includes thorough testing for a long list of chemicals. Specifically banned are: AZO dyes, carcinogenic and allergy-inducing dyes, pesticides, chlorinated phenols, extractable heavy metals, emissions of volatile components, and more.[12]

===Bio-based elastane===
Genomatica, a process technology developer for the chemical industry located in the United States, has developed a process that converts sugar (derived from sugar cane, beets or others) into commercial grade 1,4-butanediol (BDO), known as the GENO BDO™ process. BDO is a precursor to the chemical that makes elastane fibres. Bio-based BDO produced from the GENO BDO™ process is made from renewable feedstocks, rather than a conventional BDO made with petroleum-based feedstocks. Genomatica is currently licensing their process technology to producers and users in the chemical industry.[13]

==Availability==
OEKO-TEK® Standard 100 certified elastane is available. Manufacturers can be found at:
www.OEKO-TEK.com/en/manufacturers/certified_products/certified_products.html
Bio-based elastane is available by contacting Genomatica to be connected with suppliers that license the GENO BDO™ process.

== Applications==
Covered elastic yarn (covered with a spun or filament yarn to hide the elastane yarn): Heavyweight foundations, elastic bandages, althetic supporters.[3]
Bare elastic yarn (monofilament elastane fibre): Swimwear, athletic wear, lightweight foundation garments.[3]
Core spun yarns (central filament core with staple fibre): active sportswear, stretch denim, stretch chino.[3]

==Marketing opportunities==
'''OEKO-TEK® Standard 100 certified''' If verified and used.

'''XX% bio-based''' If verified and used.

==Innovation opportunities==
1. Investigate alternative technologies for colouring synthetic fabrics, such as transfer printing, which eliminates water from the dyeing process.[14]
 2. Design garments and products with reusable elements—such as trims and tags. Design the product so that trims and tags can be easily separated from the main body of the product at the end of its useful life, to enable easy recycling. Create collection systems for the products. Collect, disassemble, reuse.
 3. Work with partners to develop closed loop recycling of
elastane/natural fibres and infrastructure to label, collect, sort and purify garments.

==Sources==
# www.kpatents.com/pdf/applications/apn-4-05-03.pdf
# www.nepis.epa.gov
# Cohen, Allen and Ingrid Johnson. Fabric Science. New York: Fairchild Books, 2010.
# Corbman, Dr. Bernard P. Textiles: Fibre to Fabric. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 975.
# makewealthhistory.org/2010/06/11/how-much-oil-is-there-left-really/
# www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/jun/09/sir-david-king-dwindling-oil-supplies
# www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/90-105/
# U.S Environmental Proection Agency, “Economic Impact Analysis for the Proposed Spandex Production NESHAP,” May 2000.
# www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/toluene2.html
# emedicine.medscape.com/article/818939-overview
# Grose, Lynda and Kate Fletcher. Fashion & Sustainability: Design for Change. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd, 2012.
# www.OEKO-TEK.com/media/downloads/Factsheet_OETS_100_EN.pdf
# www.genomatica.com/news/press-releases/far-eastern-new-century-showcases-apparel-with-high-renewable-content/
# www.triplepundit.com/2009/07/airdye-dyeing-fabric-without-water/

Acrylic

2015-04-02T06:43:17Z

MichaelaRudolph: Created page with "The environmental impacts of acrylic greatly outweigh its benefits. This lack of balance indicates the necessity of exploring more sustainable options—from using other fibre..."

The environmental impacts of acrylic greatly outweigh its benefits. This lack of balance indicates the necessity of exploring more sustainable options—from using other fibres entirely, to working with partners to develop recycling capabilities for acrylic.
Recent reports have indicated that acrylic is gradually decreasing in usage, but it still represents a large portion of overall synthetic fibre use. In 2010, world production of acrylic fibres was at 1 billion tonnes, most of which is produced in China and Europe.[1] 567,000 tonnes of acrylic fibre was produced in Europe in 2012.[2]

== Benefits ==
Acrylic is a man-made synthetic fibre in which the fibre-forming substance is any long-chain synthetic polymer.3 Acrylic production is a multi-step chemical process that is produced from 85% acrylonitrile. Acrylonitrile is made through a chemical process from propylene gas.[4] Propylene is a gas that is produced from the byproduct of refinery operations.[5]
Acrylic is reasonably comfortable and has a wool-like aesthetic, and is less expensive than wool. Due to its durability, and excellent sunlight and general wearability resistance, acrylic fabrics have the potential to last and be worn many times, optimizing the energy and resources embodied in the garment.
Acrylic is machine washable, and acrylic products are generally washed in cold water and drip-dried, thereby minimizing water and energy use associated with consumer care and washing.

== Potential impacts ==

===Processing===
Acrylic fibres contain at least 85% acrylonitrile. Studies done by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) show that workers repeatedly breathing small amounts of acrylonitrile over long periods of time may develop cancer. Acrylonitrile enters the body through inhalation or absorption through skin contact.6 The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) suggest preventing skin contact.[7]
Acrylic processing emits high amounts of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). Air emissions from the acrylic process include volatilized residual monomer, organic solvents, additives, and other organic compounds used in fibre processing.[8]

===Dyeing and finishing===
Certain types of dyes are suspected carcinogens and mutagens, while other dyes are known to have a sensitizing effect on skin and should be avoided. Untreated dye water can negatively impact receiving water bodies and harm aquatic ecosystems if left untreated before its release.

====Anti-pilling treatments====
Acrylic fibres are highly likely to pill. Some fabrics are chemically treated during the manufacturing process in order to reduce their propensity to pill.

===Consumer care/washing===
Acrylic is typically machine-washed. Certain at-home products have been reported to have detrimental effects on humans and the environment and contribute to ozone depletion and can pollute wastewater.

===End of use===
Acrylic has durability to last the wearer several years; however, it is typically used in inexpensive, fast-fashion garments that are worn and quickly discarded. Synthetic fibres are from a carbon-based chemical feedstock and are considered non-biodegradable. [9]
There is no sufficient data supporting how long it takes acrylic fabric to decompose in landfills. Comparing acrylic degradability to polyester
degradability could be sufficient, since they are both synthetic polymers originating from oil. There are, however, conflicting opinions about how long polyester takes to decompose and estimates range from 40 years to 1000 years. This is because degradability is dependent upon a number of conditions including how much air, temperature and sunlight the fibre is exposed to.

==Optimize sustainability benefits==
===OEKO-TEK certified acrylic [10]===
OEKO-TEK is an independent, third party certifier that offers two certifications for textiles: OEKO-TEK 100 (for products) and OEKO-TEK 1000 (for production sites/factories). OEKO-TEK 100 label aims to ensure that products pose no risk to health. OEKO-TEK certified products do not contain allergenic dye-stuffs and dye-stuffs that form carcinogenic aryl-amines. The certification process includes thorough testing for a long list of chemicals. Specifically banned are: AZO dyes, carcinogenic and allergy-inducing dyes, pesticides, chlorinated phenols, extractable heavy metals, emissions of volatile components, and more.

==Availability==
Most of the global acrylic fibre capacity is in Asia, with a concentration in China. North America and West Europe together now account for less than 20% of global capacity. [11]
OEKO-TEK certified acrylic is available in China.

== Applications==
Sweaters, women's and children's apparel, sportswear, socks, knitted underwear, pajamas, gloves, carpets, rugs, upholstery, cushions, blankets, outdoor umbrellas, tents.

==Marketing opportunities==
'''OEKO-TEK® Standard 100 certified''' If verified and used.

==Innovation opportunities==
1. Shift to existing environmentally beneficial fabrics when possible. These fabrics include fabric derived from organic wool, recycled fabrics and TENCEL.®
 2. Recycled fibres, such as cotton, wool and polyester, lose strength when they are shredded. Use acrylic with different blends of recycled fibres to strengthen the yarn and promote durability.
 3. Investigate alternative technologies for colouring acrylic fabrics, such as transfer printing, which eliminates water from the dyeing process.
 4. Design garments and products with reusable elements—such as trims and tags. Design the product so that trims and tags can be easily separated from the main body of the product at the end of its useful life to enable easy recycling. Create collection systems for the products. Collect, disassemble, reuse.
 5. Create internal store collections of acrylic garments and products. Use fabric from collected garments and products to innovatively redesign new products.
 6. Work with partners to develop closed loop recycling of acrylic fibres and infrastructure to label, collect, sort and purify garments.
 7. Get your product Cradle to Cradle Certified. The Cradle to Cradle CertifiedTM Product Standard is a multi-attribute, continuous improvement methodology that provides a path to manufacturing healthy and sustainable products. The Standard rewards achievement in five categories and at five levels of certification. An accredited assessor will help to assess and optimize your product.
 8. Create garments that emphasize natural pilling of acrylic in order to increase lifespan of product, and divert waste from landfills.

==Sources==
# http://www.textileworld.com/Issues/2004/September/Fibre_World/A_Polyester_Saga_Geography_And_All
# http://www.cirfs.org/KeyStatistics/AcrylicinEurope.aspx
# Cohen, Allen and Ingrid Johnson. Fabric Science. New York: Fairchild Books, 2010.
# http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/acrylonitrile.html
# http://www.dow.com/productsafety/finder/pro.htm
# http://www.epa.gov/chemfact/acry-fs.txt
# http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0014.html
# http://www.epa.gov/ttnchie1/ap42/ch06/final/c06s09.pdf
# Grose, Lynda and Kate Fletcher. Fashion & Sustainability: Design for Change. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd, 2012.
# http://www.OEKO-TEK.com/media/downloads/Factsheet_OETS_100_EN.pdf
# http://www.yarnsandfibres.com/preferredsupplier/spreports_fullstory.php?id=527

Wool

2015-04-01T11:07:30Z

MichaelaRudolph: /* Benefits */

Wool is the textile fibre obtained from sheep and certain other animals, including goats, rabbits, sheep and camels. Wool fibre has inherent sustainability attributes. It is a renewable, natural fibre that can be used as a viable alternative to synthetic fabrics.

== Benefits ==
Wool is a natural fibre and renewable. It is valued for its natural warmth and water repellence.
Merino, cashmere, mohair, alpaca, camel, and angora wools are all valued for their softness, comfort, wrinkle resistance and luster. Mohair and alpaca are even naturally non-pilling.The surface of wool fibre is water- dirt- and stain-repellent, whilst the fibre interior is highly moisture absorbent, making it a comfortable fabric to wear.
Wool absorbs odours and for this reason, is considered self-cleaning. Wool tends not to smell bad, even after long periods of wear. Because
of this, wool garments do not need to be washed frequently.[1] In 100% form, wool fabric is biodegradable after its useful life, though absolute biodegradability depends on the dyes and trims used, and route of disposal.

{| class="wikitable"
|+WOOL TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS
|-
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:150px;color:#ffffff" |
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:150px;color:#ffffff" | MERINO
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:150px;color:#ffffff" | CASHMERE
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:150px;color:#ffffff" | MOHAIR
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:150px;color:#ffffff" | CAMEL
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:150px;color:#ffffff" | ANGORA
|-
| || [[File:Sheep.jpg|150px]] || [[File:Cashmere goat.jpg|150px]] || [[File:Angora goat.jpg|150px]] || [[File:Two-humped Bactrian camel.png|150px]] || [[File:Angora rabbit.jpg|150px]]
|-
| '''Microns''' || 18-20 || 14-19 || 23-45 || 16-20 || 14-16
|-
| '''Source & exclusivity''' || Sheep; common || Cashmere goat; common || Angora goat; common || Two-humped Bactrian camel; rare || Angora rabbit; limited producers
|-
| '''Major producers''' || Australia, China, New Zealand, Iran, Argentina, UK || India, Mongolia, China || South Africa, United States || Mongolia, China || China, Europe, Chile, United States
|-
| '''Fibre collection''' || Shearing || Combing or Shearing || Shearing (twice annually) || Combed, shorn or collected during the 6-8 weeks moulting season || Hair removed every 3 months by shearing or gentle plucking
|-
| '''Cost''' || Low–moderate || High–luxury fibre || High || High–luxury fibre || High–luxury fibre
|-
| '''Blends well with''' || Natural and synthetic fibres || Wool and nylon (for knitwear) || Wool || Cashmere, wool, nylon (to make it more economical for manufacturer to produce) || Wool (to increase warmth and enhance softness)
|-
| '''End use'''|| Outerwear, knitwear, activewear, durable upholstery || Knitwear, babywear, blazers, coats, underwear, sleepwear, rugs, carpets || Clothing, rugs, carpets, blankets, durable upholstery || Knitwear garments, coats, suits, blazers, jackets, gloves, hats, scarves || Luxury undergarments, underwear, thermal base layers, scarves, sportswear, sweaters
|-
| '''Natural colours'''|| White, brown, grey, charcoal, black || White, grey, brown, red, yellow, almond, apricot || Blacks, greys, silvers, reds, apricots, copper || Golden tan, red to light brown || Black, blue, chocolate, brown, greys, white, reds
|-
| '''Consumer care & washing'''|| Hand-washable || Dry-clean || Dry-clean || Dry-clean || Hand-washable
|}

== Potential impacts ==
=== Cultivation/Animal welfare ===
====Wool from sheep====
Merino sheep have been specially bred to produce more volume of higher quality wool than other breeds. This is enabled by their convoluted skin, which provides a greater surface area on which more fibre can be grown. But some reports indicate that the increased weight of wool can strain the sheep and lead to heat stroke, dehydration and even death. In addition, urine and moisture tend to build up in the wrinkles of the skin, attracting flies, particularly the blowfly, and maggots around the sheep’s rump. A compensation procedure known as mulesing involves carving skin from the back legs of the sheep to make the area smoother and less prone to flies.

Mulesing has been a hotly debated subject amongst activist groups and the textile industry as a whole. Activist reports note significant cruelty to animals during this procedure, whereas advocates describe mulesing as "a very cost-effective and simple way" to protect against flystrike, says Wool Producers Australia president Geoff Power. There have been brand boycotts and country-wide phase-out plans of mulesing, but some farmers in Australia report mulesing to still be the most cost-effective approach.[2]

Alternatives to mulesing to prevent flystrike include spray-on chemicals. These chemicals can be harmful to humans if the proper protective equipment is not worn, and can contaminate receiving water bodies if not disposed of properly.[3]

All breeds of sheep are treated with pesticides (organophosphates and pyrethroids) to control lice and parasites. These chemicals may be applied directly to the fleece or by submerging the sheep into chemical solution pools (sheep dips).

Repeated exposures to organophosphate pesticides are linked to severe nerve damage in humans, and when poorly managed, these chemical agents may contaminate regional water systems. Pyrethroids in particular are extremely toxic to aquatic life.

Besides these fibre-specific impacts, intensive sheep ranching has contributed to land degradation in some regions.

====Cashmere from goats====
Although a profitable source of income for farmers, the impact of overgrazing of cashmere goats has reportedly contributed to land degradation and desertification, and as a result loss of biodiversity in Mongolia and other countries. This is because goats are insatiable eaters compared to other livestock, and consume the root of the grass, thereby stopping it from growing altogether. To accommodate the growing cashmere industry, and the resulting drop in cashmere prices, farmers increase the size of their herds to compensate, therefore increasing the impact on land. [4]

There is little reliable information supporting animal cruelty to cashmere goats. However, due to increased consumer demand for cashmere, overall consumer demand for inexpensive products, increase in herd size, and lack of standards regulating proper treatment of animals in cashmere-producing countries, relationships with producers should be closely monitored to ensure friendly practices are being implemented.

====Angora wool from rabbits====
Animal cruelty to Angora rabbits in China has been recently publicized. Typically, angora rabbits are either shorn or gently plucked of their wool every 3 months. Recent undercover video footage has shown Chinese farmers vigorously ripping out fibre from the rabbit’s body. The reason for this is that these farmers receive a higher price for the entire length of the hair. Several companies have ceased production of angora products in response to the allegations. Relationships with producers should be closely monitored to ensure friendly practices are being implemented.

===Processing===
====Scouring====
Around two-thirds of the weight of the wool fibre by weight is grease, dried sweat salts, skin flakes, dirt and dried plant matter. To remove these substances from the wool fibre, a cleaning or scouring process is carried out at hot temperatures (approx. 60-66º C) in an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide and detergent.[5] Scouring consumes large amounts of water, and produces an effluent with high biological oxygen demand (BOD) and high-suspended solids content.[6] This reduces the dissolved oxygen (DO) levels meaning less oxygen is available to fish and other aquatic organisms. Trace elements of pesticides also remain in the wastewater. Some of these detergents used for scouring are banned in Europe, but not elsewhere.[7]

====Shrink proofing====
Anti-shrinking treatments prevent wool from felting during wash and generally include chlorine in some form. Chlorine-Hercosset is a treatment used on wool fibre. Dry chlorination is a treatment carried out on wool fabric using chlorine gas. Repeat exposure to chlorine can affect the human respiratory system. In addition, depending on the amount used and how it is handled, chlorine may be released into the air and water and in certain conditions may form dioxins.[8] The wastewater from the wool chlorination process contains chemicals of environmental concern. Due to these chemicals, this wastewater cannot be accepted by water treatment facilities in the United States. Therefore all chlorinated wool is processed in other countries, and then imported.[9]

===Dyeing===
The dyeing processes for wool involves standard industry chemicals and water use. Certain types of dyes are suspected carcinogens and mutagens, and untreated dye water can negatively impact receiving water bodies and harm aquatic ecosystems if left untreated before its release.

===Consumer care/washing===
Woven wool fabrics may be handwashed, spot cleaned, or dry-cleaned, depending on the product. Washing and caring for any product can cause significant environmental impacts due to chemicals used in cleaning products. Certain chemicals used in dry-cleaning and at-home products have been reported to have detrimental effects on humans and the environment, contribute to ozone depletion and can pollute wastewater.

===End of use===
Although 100% wool fibre is biodegradable, the amount of time it could take for a wool product to decompose naturally and in a short period of time is dependent upon a number of conditions—including how much air, temperature and sunlight the fibre is exposed to. If the waste is buried in a landfill, it can take even longer for it to break down.[10]

==Optimize sustainability benefits==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="background-color:#66cdaa;width:300px;color:#ffffff" | OPPORTUNITY
! style="background-color:#66cdaa;width:300px;color:#ffffff" | BENEFITS
! style="background-color:#66cdaa;width:300px;color:#ffffff" | CONSIDERATIONS
|-
| '''Promote suppliers using certified organic Merino wool.''' || No disallowed chemicals used. Organic feed fed to animals. Carrying capacity of the grazing land is considered and the size of the flock is monitored to avoid land degradation. Animals are quarantined when sick, rather than continuously fed with antibiotics. || Organic wool is available, though not so readily as conventional. Organic wool is more expensive than conventional wool.
|-
| '''Promote suppliers who use natural substances to scour wool tops.''' || Provides “gentle” scour, which results in less biological load and fewer toxic chemicals in the wastewater ||
|-
| '''Implement humane methods of flystrike control in Merino sheep.''' || Sheep are treated holistically as a first resort if flystrike occurs. || Methods of mulesing and chemical application are used only when absolutely necessary. Less available than conventional wool.
|-
| '''Promote the use of chlorine-free wool.''' || Chlorine is not used during the shrink proofing process. ||
|-
| '''Promote suppliers who treat the effluent after the scouring process, and reclaim the lanolin.''' || ||
|-
| '''Promote suppliers who use recycled Merino wool.''' || Available in Northern England and Prato, Italy. Since wool is a renewable resource, the primary benefit of recycled wool is in reducing loads on landfill. However, using recycled wool may also ease the pressure that industrialized sheep ranching places on the land. || Recycling wool creates shorter fibres, which need to be blended with a percentage of virgin wool or synthetic fibre to maintain strength for finer-count yarns. The coarser the yarn count, the less virgin wool or synthetic fibre is required.
|-
| '''Promote suppliers using Cardato Regenerated CO2 Neutral products.[11]''' || The Cardato Regenerated CO2 Neutral brand certifies both the carbon footprint of the textile production process and the use of regenerated raw materials. To carry the label, products must be produced in Prato; produced with at least 70% of recycled material (recycled clothing or textile off-cuts); and be made by mills that have accounted for their CO2 emissions and have purchased emission credits from the Prato Chamber of Commerce.
|-
| '''Promote the use of natural colour wool.''' || No bleaches or dyes are used in this case, and associated pollution impacts are avoided. ||
|-
| '''Promote wildlife-friendly grazing practices for Cashmere goats. Prioritize sites that have endangered wild species.''' || Decreases impacts of overgrazing and loss of biodiversity due to desertification. ||
|-
| '''Develop relationships with producers and monitor farmers.''' || Ensures animal-friendly practices are being implemented. ||
|-
| '''Promote OEKO-TEK certified wool.[12]''' || Ensures that products pose no risk to health. These products do not contain allergenic dye-stuffs and dye-stuffs that form carcinogenic aryl-amines, and several other banned chemicals. The certification process includes thorough testing for a long list of chemicals ||
|}

==Availability==
There are several companies supplying organic wool fabrics and yarns internationally.
Recycled wools are readily available in West Yorkshire, UK, and Prato, Italy.
Non-mulesed wool is available in Patagonia, South America, and even in certain areas of Australia, since the blowfly does not exist in these areas.

== End use==
The applications for wool vary according to the type of fibre/breed of sheep and animal.
Organic certification is now available for a variety of wool types and certified organic wool fabrics range from fine knit wool crepes to woven melton.
Recycled wool lends itself more to knit sweaters and coarser fabrics, though smaller percentages of recycled wool are found in high-end tweed fabrics made by Italian mills.

==Marketing opportunities==
'''certified organic''' wool With certification from an internationally recognized agency accredited by IFOAM.
'''X% post-consumer recycled wool'''
'''X% post-industrial recycled wool'''
'''biodegradable''' All fibres, yarns, trims and dyes used to manufacture the product or garment must also be biodegradable, or disassembled before disposal. This should be substantiated with documentation that the product can completely break down into non-toxic material by being processed in a facility where compost is accepted. Secondary label or marketing material should be provided to instruct customer.

==Innovation opportunities==
1. Use organic wool in blends to add character and texture to organic cotton.
 2. Use naturally coloured wool (black/brown) to create heathers with white wool or cotton.
 3. Implement an integrated approach to flystrike prevention. Work with ranchers to combat flystrike through holistic means, and use mulesing and chemical applications as a last resort.
 4. Consider using a coloured wool wrap around a less expensive cotton core to create a marled yarn.
 5. Combine stripes of organic wool with stripes of organic cotton and agitate in hot water to felt the wool and pucker the cotton.
 6. Use wool in strategic areas of a garment to emphasize its self-cleaning and moisture absorbent attributes, such as under the arms.
 7. Partner with a local cleaner to promote wet or steam cleaning to the customer instead of dry-cleaning.

==See also==
* [[Sheep's wool]]

==Sources==
# Sheep and Wool, Animal industry, http://www.h-ed.com.au/think/13-animal-industry/43-sheep-and-wool.html?
# http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/health-science/sheep-farmers-flocking-back-to-mulesing/story-e6frg8y6-1226557807686#
# ah.novartis.com.au/livestock_products/clik.html/section/470
# http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/09/12/mongolia.cashmere.herders/
# Russell I. M., Sustainable Wool Production and Processing, in Blackburn R.S. (Ed.) Sustainable Textiles Lifecycle and Environmental Impact, Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, p63-87.
# http://www.polyseed.com/misc/BODforwebsite.pdf
# oecotextiles.wordpress.com/2009/08/11/what-does-organic-wool-mean/
# http://www.epa.gov/chemfact/f_chlori.txt
# http://www.patagonia.com/us/patagonia.go?assetid=8516
# http://www.greenlivingtips.com/articles/waste-decomposition-rates.html
# http://www.nicefashion.org/en/professional-guide/recycling/Recycledtextiles.html
# http://www.OEKO-TEK.com/media/downloads/Factsheet_OETS_100_EN.pdf

Jute

2015-03-30T14:49:56Z

MichaelaRudolph:

Jute has a reputation as a sustainable fibre. In 100% form, it is biodegradable, with relatively harmless processing. Although jute is generally used for sacks and bags, it represents an opportunity in other applications to feature its sustainable qualities.
Jute is a natural bast fibre along with kenaf, hemp, ramie, bamboo and flax. Jute fibre and fabric are often called Hessian. Jute sacks are called Gunny Bags in some European countries. In North America, the fabric made from jute is known as Burlap. In Spanish, jute is called Yute and jute fabrics are called Arpillera.

==Benefits==
Jute is a long, soft, shiny plant fibre that can be spun into coarse, strong threads.
Jute is one of the most inexpensive natural fibres and is second only to cotton in the amount produced and variety of uses.[1]
Jute is a fast-growing renewable fibre that is annually farmed. Jute will grow to a length of 1 to 4 meters in 3 to 4 months.[2] Jute is a biologically efficient, low maintenance crop that requires few chemical inputs during the growing season. It is mainly rain fed, traditionally farmed and grown similarly to organic produce.[3]

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%"
|+ FAST-GROWING RENEWABLE FIBRES
! FIBER
! LENGTH
! TIMING
|-
| [[Flax]]
| 1 meters [2]
| 3-4 months [3]
|-
| | [[Jute]]
| 1-4 meters
| 3-4 months [4]
|-
| [[Hemp]]
| 4 meters
| 3 months [5]
|-
| [[Bamboo]]
| 24 meters
| 40 days [1]
|}

Jute has a natural luster and is valued for its durability, fair abrasion resistance, and high tensile strength. Jute fibre has anti-static properties, heat insulation and low elongation, which helps to retain its shape. Jute fibre is colour- and light-fast. Jute may be grown organically, but must meet the certification requirements of an internationally recognized certification agency accredited by International Federation of Agriculture Movements (IFOAM).
 Studies reveal that the CO2 assimilation rate of jute is several times higher than that of trees. During the jute growing period, one hectare of jute plants can absorb about 15 metric tonnes of CO2 from the atmosphere and release about 11 metric tonnes of oxygen.[6]
In 100% form, jute is biodegradable. Although collective data does not exist regarding how long it takes for jute to fully decompose, one source reports that jute will completely break down in 2 to 3 years (as apposed to polyester which can take anywhere from 40 to 1000 years to break down).[7]
 Due to its extensive root system, jute can help reduce soil loss and erosion and is particularly suitable for crop rotation. Since the leaves of the plant are left in the field after harvest, the nitrogen they contain absorbs into the soil and food crops can be grown immediately without having to leave the fields fallow.[8] Once the jute fibre is extracted from the stem, processing it into yarn is largely mechanical with minimal environmental impact.

==Potential impacts==
===Processing===
Jute is a bast fibre and is extracted directly from the stalk of the plant in a process similar to that used for flax, hemp and bamboo (for linen). The fibre is extracted through a process called retting, which separates the fibre from the stems using microorganisms and moisture. This is carried out in the field (with dew retting) or in tanks (water or chemical retting). Dew retting is preferred as it utilizes the natural moisture of dew, but is a longer process, taking 2 to 3 weeks to break down the stems slowly. Although chemical retting is a faster process, the wastewater is concentrated and rich in chemicals and biological matter, which negatively impacts receiving water bodies and aquatic ecosystems if left untreated before its release.9
Although organic certification disallows the use of chemicals in the growing of jute, it does not necessarily guarantee low water use, fair labor practices or a fair price to the farmer.

===Dyeing, blending and treatments===
The natural colour of jute fibre is beige, and jute yarn or fabric must be bleached with chlorine to render it light enough to receive dyes for light or clear shades. Chlorine bleach can form halogenated organic compounds in the wastewater. These compounds bioaccumulate in the food chain, are known teratogens and mutagens, are suspected human carcinogens and cause reproductive harm.
Jute can also be blended with wool. By treating jute with caustic soda (also called “lye”), crimp, softness, pliability and appearance is improved, aiding in its ability to be spun with wool. Due to its toxic nature, even a small quantity of caustic soda in a diluted solution can cause skin burns or injure the eyes, causing blindness.[11]

{| class="wikitable"
|+RETTING PROCESS COMPARISION CHART [10]
|-
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:5%;color:#ffffff" | TYPE
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:15%;color:#ffffff" | DESCRIPTION
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:15%;color:#ffffff" | ADVANTAGE
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:30%;color:#ffffff" | IMPACTS
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:15%;color:#ffffff" | DURATION
|-
| '''Dew Retting''' || Plant stems are cut or pulled out and left in the field to rot. || Returns nutrients back into the soil. || Reduced fibre strength; low and inconsistent quality; influenced by weather; and product is contaminated with soil. || 2–3 weeks
|-
| '''Water Retting''' || Plant stems are immersed in water (rivers, ponds or tanks) and monitored frequently || Produces fibre of greater uniformity and higher quality. || Extensive stench and pollution arising from anaerobic bacterial fermentation of the plant; high cost; low-grade fibre. Requires water treatment maintenance. || 7–14 days
|-
| '''Chemical Retting''' || Boiling and applying chemicals, normally sodium hydroxide, sodium benzoate, hydrogen peroxide. || More efficient and can produce clean and consistent long and smooth surface bast fibre within a short period of time. || Unfavorable colour; high processing cost. The wastewater is concentrated and rich in chemicals and biological matter, which negatively impacts receiving water bodies, harming aquatic ecosystems, if left untreated before its release. || 60–75 minutes
|}

===Consumer care/washing===
Jute may be washed or dry-cleaned. Electricity and water use in the care of the garment can cause significant environmental impacts. Moreover, jute wrinkles easily and requires heavy pressing to render it smooth after wash. This uses significant amounts of electrical energy over the long term.

===End of use===
Although 100% jute fibre is biodegradable, the amount of time it could take for a jute product to decompose naturally and in a short period of time is dependent upon a number of conditions—including how much air, temperature and sunlight the fibre is exposed to. If the waste is buried in a landfill, it can take even longer for it to break down.

==Optimize sustainability benefits==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="background-color:#66cdaa;width:300px;color:#ffffff" | OPPORTUNITY
! style="background-color:#66cdaa;width:300px;color:#ffffff" | BENEFITS
! style="background-color:#66cdaa;width:300px;color:#ffffff" | CONSIDERATIONS
|-
| '''Promote suppliers using organic jute.''' || In addition to the general ecological benefits of jute, organic processes ensure that no disallowed pesticides or fertilizers are used. || • Organic certification must be in place by a recognized international certification agency accredited by IFOAM. • Organic jute is not as readily available as conventional jute, and commands a premium.
|-
| '''Promote the use of natural colour jute.''' || No bleaches or dyes are used in this case, and associated pollution impacts are avoided. ||
|-
| '''Promote suppliers who use dew retting over water or chemical retting.''' || Dew retting reduces the biological load in the receiving water bodies and adds nutrients to the soil. || The natural colour may vary slightly from lot to lot, since the process is influenced by weather.
|-
| '''Promote suppliers who use enzymatic retting over water or chemical retting.''' || Process is faster and leaves the water unharmed. Can be commercially reproduced. || Low fibre strength. Process is less common compared to other retting processes.
|-
| '''Use hydrogen peroxide to lighten the natural beige colour for dyeing dark shades and bright/light shades.''' || Hydrogen peroxide harmlessly decomposes into water and oxygen gas. || Non-chlorine bleaches do not strip out the original colour of the fibre. Consequently, colours will be duller due to the over-dyed effect. Non-chlorine bleaching is adequate for dark colours, which mask the original beige tone.
|-
| '''Use ozone bleaching processes to strip out the natural beige colour of jute. Promote the particular aesthetic of ozone bleach effects.''' || Ozone can used be with no water at all. || • Ozone has limited availability, and is relatively expensive since it requires investment in ozone generating equipment. • Ozone processes produce a different aesthetic than chlorine derivative or permanganate bleaching.
|-
| '''Promote the use of enzymes to strip out the natural beige colour of jute. Promote the particular aesthetic of enzyme bleaches. ''' || || • Enzymes are not allowed in GOTS standards. • Enzymes produce a different aesthetic than chlorine derivative or permanganate bleaching.
|-
| '''Promote the use of jute-blended fabrics.''' || Can achieve the property benefits of both fibres. || Sometimes requires further processing, which could include chemicals.
|-
| '''Know the difference between natural jute fabric and jute made from a viscose process.''' || Viscose made from jute is chemically processed and has greater pollution impacts to water and air. ||
|}

==Availability==
Jute is readily available in 100% form as well as blends with wool and silk.
About 95% of the world’s jute is grown in India and Bangladesh. Nepal, Myanmar, China, Thailand, Vietnam and Brazil also produce jute. Pakistan imports a substantial amount of raw jute from Bangladesh for processing.[12]
A number of farmers in Bangladesh are currently growing organic jute. Organic certification by an internationally recognized certification agency accredited by IFOAM must be in place.
==Application==
In 100% form, jute is highly durable and suitable for many applications including twine and rope, sackings, carpets, wrapping fabrics (cotton bale), and the construction fabric manufacturing industry. It can be used in curtains, chair coverings, carpets and carpet backing, rugs, and backing for linoleum. Other uses include espadrille shoes.
Jute can be used in home textiles, either replacing cotton or wool or blending with it.
Finest jute threads can be separated out and made into imitation silk.
In 100% form and fabric blends, jute fibre is suitable for jackets and skirts.

==Marketing opportunities==
'''fast-growing natural resource'''
 '''low water footprint in growing'''
 '''biodegradable''' (depending on dyes and trims used) All fibres, yarns, trims and dyes used to manufacture the product or garment must also be biodegradable, or disassembled before disposal. This should be substantiated with documentation that the product can completely break down into non-toxic material by being processed in a facility where compost is accepted. Secondary label or marketing material should be provided to instruct customer.
 '''non-chlorine bleached''' If alternative bleach is used.
 '''organic''' All fibres, yarn, trims and dyes used to manufacture the garment must comply with the GOTS organic garment standard. Simply state “made from 100% organic jute” if this is verified and accurate.

==Innovation opportunities==
1. As an alternative to plastic bags, develop a 100% biodegradable jute bag (undyed with biodegradable trims) with instructions to the customer on proper disposal.
 2. Create a jute product that is 100% biodegradable and compostable: the product can break down in a reasonable amount of time and can provide valuable nutrients to the soil.
 3. Use jute fibre in blends with cotton to achieve grey/beige heather effects, then over-dye the cotton side to achieve heathered colours without using chlorine bleach.
 4. Use 100% jute in stripes with cotton, then over-dye to achieve tonal colours without using chlorine bleach.
 5. Strategically place jute at places of high stress on products, such as the knees or elbows, to maximize its physically durable properties.
 6. Ease effects of cotton growth and cultivation by replacing jute with cotton in applications for denim.
 7. Develop garments and products that are designed to be easily deconstructed to enable a take-back and recycling program. Experiment with seaming and a variety of disassembly mechanisms in different fabrics.

==Sources==
# avmchemical.com/data/uploads/articles/article-7-what-is-jute.pdf
# fao.org/economic/futurefibres/fibres/jute/en/
# purejute.com/en/pure-jute/jute-environment.html
# hempage.de/cms/
# resource-fibre.com/wp-content/uploads/RF_RFA_Founded_PR_0731121.pdf
# Inagaki, H (2000). Progress on Kenaf in Japan. Third Annual Conference, held at American Kenaf Society,Texas, USA, 2000Lam Thi Bach Tuyet, Hori Keko and Iiyama Kenzi (2003). Journal of Wood Science 49(3): 255-261.
# freesetglobal.com/who-we-are/faq.html
# commodityonline.com/commodities/fibres/jute.php
# “Beginner’s Guide to Sustainable Fibres,” Textile Exchange, 2011
# ncsu.edu/bioresources/BioRes_06/BioRes_06_4_5260_Paridah_ASZ_Retting_Bast_Fibre_Quality_Review_1312.pdf
# ppg.com/chemicals/chloralkali/products/Documents/CausticSodamanual2008.pdf
# fao.org/economic/futurefibres/fibres/jute/en/

Bamboo linen

2015-03-30T09:50:36Z

MichaelaRudolph: /* Sources */

Bamboo linen is a natural fibre, and processing into yarn is largely mechanical with minimal environmental impact. Bamboo linen can be used as a sustainability choice that accentuates the many attributes of the bamboo plant.

== Benefits ==
Bamboo is a “rapidly renewable” resource, meaning that it grows quickly and can be harvested at least once a year.[1]

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%"
|+ FAST-GROWING RENEWABLE FIBRES
! FIBER
! LENGTH
! TIMING
|-
| [[Bamboo]]
| 24 meters
| 40 days [1]
|-
| [[Hemp]]
| 4 meters
| 3 months [5]
|-
| [[Jute]]
| 1-4 meters
| 3-4 months [4]
|-
| [[Flax]]
| 1 meters [2]
| 3-4 months [3]
|}

Bamboo linen has a natural ability to breathe and wick moisture away due to its porous nature. It keeps the wearer cooler—by one to two degrees—than someone wearing cotton.
Bamboo is a biologically efficient, low maintenance crop that requires few chemical inputs during the growing season. It is mainly rain fed, and can grow in diverse climates.
Due to its speedy growth and little input needed for growing, some say that using bamboo as an alternative to wood trees could help slow deforestation.[1]
Once the fibre is extracted from the stem, processing bamboo into yarn for linen is largely mechanical, with minimal environmental impact.
In 100% form, linen from bamboo fabric is biodegradable after its useful life, though absolute biodegradability depends on the dyes and trims used, and route of disposal.

==Potential impacts==
===Processing===
When processing for linen, bamboo is a bast fibre and is extracted directly from the stalk of the plant in a process similar to that used for jute, hemp and flax. The fibre is extracted through a process called retting, which separates the fibre from the stems using
microorganisms and moisture. This is carried out in the field (as with dew retting) or in tanks (water or chemical retting). Dew
retting is preferred as it utilizes the natural moisture of dew, but is the longest process, taking over 2–3 weeks to break down the stems slowly. Although chemical retting is the fastest process, the wastewater is concentrated and rich in chemicals and biological matter, which negatively impacts receiving water bodies, harming aquatic ecosystems, if left untreated before its release.[6]

{| class="wikitable"
|+RETTING PROCESS COMPARISION CHART [6]
|-
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:5%;color:#ffffff" | TYPE
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:15%;color:#ffffff" | DESCRIPTION
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:15%;color:#ffffff" | ADVANTAGE
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:30%;color:#ffffff" | IMPACTS
! style="background-color:#008b45;width:15%;color:#ffffff" | DURATION
|-
| '''Dew Retting''' || Plant stems are cut or pulled out and left in the field to rot. || Returns nutrients back into the soil. || Reduced fibre strength; low and inconsistent quality; influenced by weather; and product is contaminated with soil. || 2–3 weeks
|-
| '''Water Retting''' || Plant stems are immersed in water (rivers, ponds or tanks) and monitored frequently || Produces fibre of greater uniformity and higher quality. || Extensive stench and pollution arising from anaerobic bacterial fermentation of the plant; high cost; low-grade fibre. Requires water treatment maintenance. || 7–14 days
|-
| '''Chemical Retting''' || Boiling and applying chemicals, normally sodium hydroxide, sodium benzoate, hydrogen peroxide. || More efficient and can produce clean and consistent long and smooth surface bast fibre within a short period of time. || Unfavorable colour; high processing cost. The wastewater is concentrated and rich in chemicals and biological matter, which negatively impacts receiving water bodies, harming aquatic ecosystems, if left untreated before its release. || 60–75 minutes
|}

===Dyeing===
The natural colour of bamboo fibre is golden, and bamboo for linen must be bleached with chlorine to render it light enough to receive dyes for light or clear shades. Chlorine bleach can form halogenated organic compounds in the wastewater. These compounds bioaccumulate in the food chain, are known teratogens and mutagens, are suspected human carcinogens and cause reproductive harm.

===End of use===
Although 100% linen from bamboo fabric is claimed to be
biodegradable, the amount of time it could take for a product to decompose naturally and in a short period of time is dependent upon a number of conditions—including how much air, temperature and sunlight the fibre is exposed to. If the waste is buried in a landfill, it can take even longer for it to break down.[7]

==Optimize sustainability benefits==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="background-color:#66cdaa;width:300px;color:#ffffff" | OPPORTUNITY
! style="background-color:#66cdaa;width:300px;color:#ffffff" | BENEFITS
! style="background-color:#66cdaa;width:300px;color:#ffffff" | CONSIDERATIONS
|-
| '''Know the difference between natural bamboo linen fabric, and bamboo made from a viscose process.''' || || Bamboo viscose is chemically processed and has greater pollution impacts to water and air.
|-
| '''Promote the use of linen from bamboo products.''' || Once the fibre is extracted from the stem, processing bamboo into yarn for linen is largely mechanical, with minimal environmental impact. ||
|-
| '''Promote suppliers using organic bamboo.''' || Ensures that no disallowed fertilizers are used. || Organic certification must be in place by a recognized international certification agency accredited by IFOAM. Organic linen from bamboo is not as readily available as conventional linen from flax.
|-
| '''Promote the use of natural colour.''' || No bleaches or dyes are used in this case, and associated pollution impacts are avoided. ||
|-
| '''Promote the use of non-chlorine bleaches, such as hydrogen peroxide, to lighten the natural beige colour for dyeing dark shades and bright/light shades.''' || Hydrogen peroxide harmlessly decomposes into water and oxygen gas. || Non-chlorine bleaches do not strip out the original colour of the fibre. Consequently, lighter and brighter colours will be duller due to the over-dyed effect. Non-chlorine bleaching is adequate for dark colours, which mask the original beige tone.
|-
| '''Promote the use of ozone bleaching processes to strip out the natural beige colour of linen (from flax). Promote the particular aesthetic of ozone bleach effects.''' || Ozone can used be with no water at all. || Ozone has limited availability, and is relatively expensive since it requires investment in ozone generating equipment. Ozone processes produce a different aesthetic than chlorine derivative or permanganate bleaching.
|-
| '''Promote suppliers who use dew retting over water or chemical retting.''' || Dew retting reduces the biological load in the receiving water bodies, and adds nutrients to the soil. || The natural colour may vary slightly from lot to lot, since the process is influenced by weather.
|-
| '''Promote the use of enzymes to strip out the natural beige colour of bamboo linen.''' || || Enzymes are not allowed in GOTS standards.
Enzymes produce a different aesthetic than chlorine derivative or permanganate bleaching.
|}

==Availability==
Bamboo linen fabric is available from Deltracon in Belgium. This company produces a heavier quality bamboo linen fabric suitable for home furnishings. Expressing an interest in bamboo linen fabric to your suppliers can help to expand its availability worldwide.

==Applications==
Linen from bamboo fabrics are seen in both knits and wovens, and range from medium-weight jerseys to heavyweight wovens for trousers.

==Marketing opportunities==
'''bamboo linen''' Fabric should not be referred to simply as “bamboo,” since the processing of bamboo into linen and into rayon varies significantly. The bamboo textile should be referred to more specifically as “bamboo linen” or “viscose made from bamboo.” This should be done consistently on labeling, hangtags and POS.[8] 
'''organic''' (if organic bamboo fibre is used) All fibres, yarn, trims and dyes used to manufacture the garment must comply with the GOTS organic garment standard. Simply state “made from 100% organic bamboo,” if this is verified and accurate. '''biodegradable''' All fibres, yarns, trims and dyes used to manufacture the product or garment must also be biodegradable, or disassembled before disposal. This should be substantiated with documentation that the product can completely break down into non-toxic material by being processed in a facility where compost is accepted. Secondary label or marketing material should be provided to instruct customer. '''non-chlorine''' bleached If alternative bleach is used. '''dew retted''' If dew retted processed. '''enzyme retted''' If enzyme retted processed. '''fast-growing natural resource.''' '''low water footprint in cultivation.'''

==Innovation opportunities==
1. Use linen from bamboo fibre in blends with cotton to achieve grey/beige heather effects, then over-dye the cotton side to achieve heathered colours without using chlorine bleach. 
2. Use 100% bamboo linen in stripes with cotton, then over dye to achieve tonal colours without using chlorine bleach. 
3. Since bamboo linen wrinkles easily, and washing and caring for the garment can cause significant environmental impacts,
design garments that utilize the natural wrinkling of the fabric as a design feature to influence the customer to reduce ironing of the final product and the energy it uses. 
4. Create a bamboo linen product that is 100% biodegradable and compostable: the product can break down in a
reasonable amount of time and can provide valuable nutrients to the soil after disposal. 
5. Encourage handwashing or spot cleaning on the hangtag and labeling/POS to influence the consumer to take an active role in reducing environmental impacts.

== Sources ==
# voanews.com/content/a-13-2006-08-29-voa51/323110.html
# https://www.hempage.de/cms/
# decktowel.com/pages/how-linen-is-made-from-flax-to-fabric
# swicofil.com/products/003flax.html
# fao.org/economic/futurefibres/fibres/jute/en/
# https://www.ncsu.edu/bioresources/BioRes_06/BioRes_06_4_5260_Paridah_ASZ_Retting_Bast_Fibre_Quality_Review_1312.pdf
# https://www.greenlivingtips.com/articles/waste-decomposition-rates.html
# business.ftc.gov/documents/alt172-how-avoid-bamboozling-your-customers
# Other: www.nrdc.org/international/cleanbydesign/files/CBD_FibreFacts_Bamboo.pdf

Alpaca

2015-03-13T09:45:34Z

MichaelaRudolph:

The textile fibre obtained from alpaca is simply called “alpaca fibre.” Alpaca fibre has inherent sustainability attributes: It is a renewable, [[natural fibre]] that can be used as a viable alternative to cashmere, wool from sheep and even synthetic fabrics.
[[File:Alpaca.PNG|200px|right|thumb|Alpaca]]

==Benefits==
There are two different breeds of alpacas: huacaya and suri. The main physical difference between these two alpacas is the fleece. Like wool from sheep, fibre from huacaya has a natural crimp and when the fleece grows out they look fluffy. Suri fibre has no crimp in its fleece, and the fibre drapes down from its body. It is soft and silky, and can be used as an alternative to silk.[1]

Alpacas have padded feet and toenails rather than hooves. Because of this, they are very gentle on the pasture. Alpacas don't consume the root of grass like sheep and Kashmir goats, so the grass can continue growing after they have eaten it.[1]

Alpaca fibre is a natural fibre and renewable. It is valued for its natural warmth and water repellence.

Alpaca fibre is highly valued for its softness, durability and silkiness. Due to its low micron count (20-70), it is very comfortable to wear and is also lightweight. It is naturally non-pilling.

The surface of alpaca fibre is water-, dirt- and stain repellent, whilst the fibre interior is highly moisture absorbent. Alpaca fibre is dyed readily and is naturally fire resistant. Since there is no need for the use of fire retardant coatings or synthetic topical finishes on wool, it may be used as a viable alternative to synthetic fabrics.[2]

Alpaca fibre absorbs odours and is, to some extent, self-cleaning. It tends not to smell bad, even after long periods of wear. Because of this, alpaca fibre garments and products do not need to be washed frequently.[3]

Alpaca fibre comes in 22 natural colours, including white, browns, greys and black, potentially eliminating the need to use synthetic dyes.[1]

Alpaca fibre does not contain lanolin or grease, so it can be easily cleaned in a rinse bath with natural products.[4]

In 100% form, alpaca fibre fabric is biodegradable after its useful life, though absolute biodegradability depends on the dyes and trims used, and route of disposal.

==Potential impacts==

===Dyeing===
The dyeing process for alpaca fibre involves standard industry chemicals and water use. Certain types of dyes are suspected carcinogens and mutagens, and untreated dye water can negatively impact receiving water bodies and harm aquatic ecosystems if left untreated before its release.

===Consumer care/washing===
Alpaca fibre fabrics may be handwashed, spot cleaned, or dry-cleaned, depending on the product. Washing and caring for any product can cause significant environmental impacts due to chemicals used in cleaning products.

===End of use===
Although 100% alpaca fibre is biodegradable, the amount of time it could take for a alpaca product to decompose naturally and in a short period of time is dependent upon a number of conditions—including how much air, temperature and sunlight the fibre is exposed to. If the waste is buried in a landfill, it can take even longer for it to break down.

==Optimize sustainability benefits==
*Promote the use of alpaca fibre as an alternative to wool, cashmere, silk and synthetics.

*Develop relationships with producers and monitor farmers to ensure animal-friendly practices are being implemented.

*Promote the use of natural colour alpaca fibre.

*Promote OEKO-TEK® certified alpaca fibre.[6]

==Availability==
Alpaca fibre is available from producers in Peru, North America and Australia.

==Applications==
Knitwear applications in clothing, accessories, outerwear, baby clothing, blankets, rugs, upholstery.

==Marketing opportunities==
'''renewable resource'''

'''OEKO-TEK® Standard 100 certified''' If verified and used.

'''biodegradable''' All fibres, yarns, trims and dyes used to manufacture the product or garment must also be biodegradable, or disassembled before disposal. This should be substantiated with documentation that the product can completely break down into non-toxic material by being processed in a facility where compost is accepted. Secondary label or marketing material should be provided to instruct customer.

'''natural colour''' If no dyes are used.

==Innovation opportunities==
# To minimize cost, use alpaca in blends with organic wool or cotton.
# Use naturally coloured alpaca fibre to create heathers with white wool or cotton.
# Design garments that use alpaca fibre in strategic areas, such as under the arms, to emphasize its self-cleaning and moisture absorbent attributes.
# Create an alpaca product that is 100% biodegradable and compostable: the product can break down in a reasonable amount of time and can provide valuable nutrients to the soil after disposal.
# Know whom your fibre or product is being sourced from. Be aware that when there is high demand for a fibre—a fibre that typically gets produced in poor countries with little or unenforced regulations for workers and animals—the likelihood of animal cruelty and poor worker conditions increases.

==Sources==
# Nelson, Bruce. Personal interview. 5 Jan. 2014.
# http://www.wildhairalpacas.com/pages/1414/wild-hair-alpacas-llc-whats-so-special-about-alpaca-fibre
# Sheep and Wool, Animal industry, http://www.h-ed.com.au/think/13-animal-industry/43-sheep-and-wool.html?
# http://www.usalpacacompany.com/Alpaca-Fibre.html
# http://www.greenlivingtips.com/articles/waste-decomposition-rates.html
# http://www.OEKO-TEK.com/media/downloads/Factsheet_OETS_100_EN.pdf